ill 




■i 

ii'i 





gass\ ^\04^ 



Book 



\^ A 






\ 



Visual Education 




TEACHERS' GUIDE TO 

KEYSTONE "600 SET" 



Keystone View Company 

(INCORPORATED) 

EDUCATIONAL DEPT. MEADVILLE, PA. 






Copyright 1906 
Copyright 1908 
Copyright 1911 
Copyright 1917 
Copyright 1920 
Copyright 1922 

KEYSTONE VIEW COMPANY 

ALL STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES COPYRIGHTED 

ALL RIGHTS SPECIFICALLY RESERVED 



By ""ran of or 

Dept of Oommerot 

JUN 3-1982 



STATEMENT 

The copyright notice on the opposite page tells an interesting 
story. It records the date of the introduction into school 
work of a set of stereographs and lantern slides specifically 
selected to meet school needs and with cross reference classifi- 
cations to make quickly available the teaching content of the 
set. The other copyright notices indicate the dates when the 
first set and plan, originated by Keystone, were revised and 
improved. 

When the schools first turned to the stereograph and slide as 
the most effective forms of visual instruction materials, it was 
soon determined that the standard sets of Travel Tours then 
in common use for public and private libraries did not meet 
class-room requirements. There was need of a carefully 
selected set of scenes closely fitted to the regular course of 
study. The Keystone View Company noted this need and, 
with the help of progressive school people, pioneered this field 
by bringing forth the first school set supplied with the cross 
reference classification plan — the Keystone " 600 Set " with 
the Teachers' Guide. 

The success of the first set equalled the best expectations. 
The schools found in this set of stereographs and slides just the 
material needed to make their class-room instruction most 
effective. It was widely used and with the later revisions has 
found a place in thousands of schools. From this extended 
use under actual teaching conditions there have come the sug- 
gestions and improvements that have made the present devel- 
opment and efficiency possible. 

Out of the accumulated experience based on the use of the 
Keystone " 600 Set " in thousands of class rooms, there has 
come the present " 600 Set." It is a thorough revision both as 
to photographic content and editorial work. Thousands of 
dollars were expended to get the subjects our educational 
advisors deemed essential to the set. The whole world was 



iv STATEMENT 

laid tribute that the children in the schools might have at hand 
the best material obtainable. Every continent yielded its con- 
tribution. Three Arctic and Antarctic expeditions were levied 
upon to supply scenes to complete this set. 

While the actual teaching value of the stereograph or slide 
has been the determining factor in its selection, there is noted 
an equitable distribution of the material over the entire geo- 
graphic range. Every state in the United States is repre- 
sented. Every important country of the world is cared for in 
a satisfactory manner. The distribution has been made in 
harmony with the plan of the leading textbooks on Geography. 
Whatever text is used will be effectually visualized. 

In the former Teachers' Guide the scenes were listed and 
edited from twenty-one special view points. Class-room use 
has demonstrated that a set of illustrations of such rich teach- 
ing content as the Keystone " 600 Set " has many more points 
of specific application to the course of study than our previous 
editorial work had indicated. 

The new edition contains 50 cross reference classifications on 
50 school subjects and edited by 62 leading educators. This 
Editorial Board — listed elsewhere — has made a distinct con- 
tribution to visual education. The revised " 600 Set " is quite 
the latest and greatest achievement in modern visual instruc- 
tion material. 

The Publishers. 



CONTENTS 

CLASSIFICATIONS 

PAGE 

Statement :ii 

General Introduction Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. vii 

Concreteness in Education William C. Bagley, Ph.D. ix 1 

How to Study Stereographs Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. xi 

The Stereoscope and Stereograph. . .Oliver Wendell Holmes xiv 

How to Use the Stereographs and the Lantern Slides xv 

Editorial Board xxix 

GEOGRAPHY 

Introduction Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. i 

i Geographical Classification Douglas C. Ridgley, A.B. 3 

2 People of All Lands Mark Jefferson, A.M. 31 

3 Production and Manufacturing Charles Dryer, M.A. 45 

4 Transportation Emery R. Johnson, Ph.D. 73 

5 Markets and Marketing J. Paul Goode, Ph.D. 87 

6 Natural Forms and Forces. .. .Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D. 97 

7 Zones and Their Effects Robert De C. Ward, A.M. 109 

8 Geography by Nations E. M. Lehnerts, M.A. 121 

9 Earth Neighbors James F. Chamberlain, S.B. 140 

HISTORY AND CIVICS 

Introduction Albert Bushnell Hart, LLD. 148 

10 Foreign Beginnings American History. .H. Webster, Ph.D. 150 

n Foundation of the American Nation. . . .A. B. Hart, LL.D. 158 

12 Development of Our Nation H. M. Stephens, Litt.D. 164 

13 America of To-day Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S. 177 

14 Government Arthur Norman Holcombe, Ph.D. 188 

15 Community Civics Arthur William Dunn, A.M. 200 

16 Cities of the World John Nolen, Sc.D. 215 

ENGLISH 

Introduction Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D. 238 

17 Literary Subjects and Settings F. T. Baker, Ph.D. 240 

18 English Composition James Fleming Hosic, Ph.D. 250 

AGRICULTURE 

Introduction Charles F. Curtiss, D.S. 267 

19 Soils Alfred Vivian, Ph.G. 269 

20 Farm Crops W. M. Jardine, LL.D. 276 

21 Garden, Orchard and Woodlot R. L. Watts, M.S. 284 

22 Animal Husbandry W. A. Cochel, B.S. 291 

23 Farm Management — Machinery M. L. Fisher, M.S. 

Assisted by Wm. Aitkenhead, M.E. 297 

24 Farm Home and Farm Life A. E. Winship, LL.D. 311 



CONTENTS 
NATURE STUDY 

PAGE 

Introduction Ernest Thompson Seton 318 

25 Plants and Plant Associations John M. Coulter, Ph.D. 

Assisted by George D. Fuller, Ph.D. 320 

26 Animals Ernest Thompson Seton 331 

27 Outdoor Life Daniel Carter Beard ("Dan Beard") 341 

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

28 Vocational Guidance Meyer Bloomfield, B.A. 347 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

Introduction Martha Van Rensselaer, A.B. 356 

29 Industries Supplying the Home L. D. Harvey, Ph.D. 358 

30 Foods and Cookery Edna N. White, B.S. 

Assisted by Lelia McGuire, M.S. 362 

31 Textiles and Clothing Anna M. Cooley, B.S. 

Assisted by Edith P. Chace, A.M. 374 

32 Household Administration Grace Schermerhorn, B.S. 383 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

Introduction Charles A. Prosser, Ph.D. 386 

33 Industrial Design Including Architecture . . . . R. P. Ensign 388 

34 Wood — Sources and Uses George M. Brace, M.A. 420 

35 Metals — Sources and Uses Harry S. Bitting 425 

36 Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile. .Charles M. Spofford, S.B. 432 

37 Local Industries Clifford B. Connelley, Sc.D. 439 

HEALTH 

38 Hygiene— Health Habits M. V. O'Shea, B.L. 448 

FINE ARTS 

Introduction C. Valentine Kirby 453 

39 Drawing Harry W. Jacobs 455 

40 House Design and Costume Design Mary J. Quinn 462 

41 Photography C. E. K. Mees, D.Sc. 487 

FOR THE LITTLE FOLKS 

Introduction William C. Bagley, Ph.D. 501 

42 Children of the World G. A. Mirick, A.M. 503 

43 Plants and Animals Anna Botsford Comstock 517 

44 Reading Charles Madison Curry, A.M. 527 

45 Things We Eat and Wear William M. Gregory 551 

46 Home Geography R. H. Whitbeck, A.B. 562 

TRAVELOGUES 

47 Lecture Suggestions Russell H. Conwell, LL.D. 574 

Index 58i 



EDITORIAL BOARD 

FOR THE KEYSTONE "600 SET" 







Charles W. Eliot. Ph.D. \V. C. Basley, Ph.D. P. M. McMurry, Ph.D. C. T. McFarlane. Pd.D. 







D. C. Ridgley. A.B. C. R. Dryer, M.A. E. R. Johnson. Ph.D. J. P. Goode, Ph.D. 







W. W. Atwood, Ph.D. R. DeC. Ward, A.M. E. M. Lehnerts, A.M. J. F. Chamberlain. Ed B. 







A. B Hart. PhD H. Webster. Ph.D. H. M. Stephens. Litt.D. J. W. Redway, F.R.G.S. 







A. N Eolcombe, Ph.M. A. W. Dunn, A.M. J. Nolen. Sc.D. F. T. Baker. Ph.D. 







J. P. Hosic. Ph.M. C. P. Curtiss. D.S. Alfred Vivian. Ph.G. W. M. Jardine. LL..D. 







R. W. Watts. M.S. W. A. Cochel. B.S. M. L. Fisher. M.S. W. Aitkenhead. M.E 







A. E. Winship. LL.D. E. T. Seton J. M. Coulter. Ph.D. G. D. Fuller. Ph.D 







D. C. Beard M. Bloomfield. B.A. M. VanRensselaer, A.B. L. D. Harvey. Ph.D. 







E. N. White, B.S. Lelia McGuire, B.S. A. M. Cooley, B.S. E. P. Chace, B.S. 







G. Shermerhorn, B.S. C. A. Prosser, Ph.D. R. P. Ensign G. M. Brace. MA. 







H. S. Bitting C. M. Spofford, S.B. C. B. Connelley. Sc.D. m. V. O'Shea. B.L, 







C. V. Kirby H. W. Jacobs Mary J. Quinn C. E. K. Mees. D.Sc. 







G. A. Miriek, A.M. A. B. Comstock C. M. Curry, A.M. W. M. Gregory 





R. H. Whitbeck, A.B Russell H. Conwell. LL.D. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. 

President-Emeritus of Harvard University 

TRAINING THE POWERS OF OBSERVATION, MEMORY, 
AND CORRECT DESCRIPTION ALL TOGETHER 

I have been urging for some years past that American edu- 
cation is seriously defective in that it provides an inadequate 
amount of training of the senses, particularly of the eye. It 
relies far too much on book-work. There ought to be incor- 
porated into elementary and secondary school work a much 
larger proportion of accurate eye-work and hand-work com- 
bined with simultaneous training of the memory and of the 
capacity for describing correctly, either orally or in writing, 
things observed and done. 

The Keystone View Company of Meadville, Pa., manufac- 
tures admirable material for just this training of children and 
adolescents. This Company provides schools with stereo- 
graphic views, stereoscopes, and lantern slides to illustrate phys- 
ical, political, and commercial geography, United States his- 
tory, nature study, arts and crafts, domestic science, national 
industries, and architecture. The stereographs and stereo- 
scope are used in class-work at regular study and recitation pe- 
riods, the lantern slides for reviews and lectures. On the back 
of each of the stereographs is a printed description of the 
scene or object represented, which may be read by the pupil 
after he has himself studied the stereograph in the stereoscope. 
Each pupil is expected to remember what he has seen long 
enough to describe it orally in the class, or to write a short com- 
position on it after an interval. The teacher may or may not 
help the pupils to discern and take in all there is to be seen in 
the stereograph. Once a week or once a fortnight the topic 
which has been thus dealt with in the recitation room may be 
reviewed by the teacher before the class by means of the corre- 
sponding lantern slides ; and another composition may then be 



viii INTRODUCTION 

required of each pupil. The stereograph may be used advan- 
tageously either with or without a textbook. If a textbook be 
used, the pupils should themselves come to see much more in 
the stereographs than they find in the book. It is important 
that each pupil should be trained to describe with all the full- 
ness and accuracy possible for him what he has seen in the 
stereographs ; for in this way the pupil receives a discipline 
which is directly applicable all through life in daily work and 
play, in increasing his knowledge, and developing his capacities. 

The process differs entirely from looking passively at moving 
pictures for an hour or two. That looking yields little more 
than a transitory entertainment ; for it cultivates neither the 
memory nor the power of correct description. Impressions suc- 
f ceed each other so rapidly that few are fixed in the memory, 
and the spectator is not called on for any mental effort of his 
own. Sometimes, of course, strong emotion may fix an impres- 
sion which would otherwise be fleeting. 

At the review with lantern slides, every pupil should be given 
opportunity to lecture for a few minutes on a slide familiar to 
him. Reciting on the stereographs and lecturing on the slides 
will do more for the pupil's enunciation and clearness of state- 
ment than much reading aloud from a book. English composi- 
tions written from memory about the stereographs or the 
slides will always be on subjects which have interested the 
pupils and about which they really know something. 

The material manufactured by the Keystone View Company, 
and sold by them, provides the means of teaching children and 
adolescents to see accurately, to make mental note of what they 
have seen, and then to put into language whatever has impressed 
them. All active-minded and ambitious teachers ought to be 
interested in this method of teaching; for it is applicable to a 
great variety of subjects and in all the grades. 

It is the combination of visual instruction with training of 
the memory, and practice in accurate reproduction in language 
of what has been pictured to the eye which so strongly com- 
mends to progressive teachers and superintendents the method 
which the Keystone View Company's apparatus makes avail- 
able in all schools. 



CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION 

By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. 

Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: 
"The Educative Process"; "Class Ru >rn Management"; "Craftsmanship in 
Teaching"; "Educational Values"; "School Discipline." Joint Author: "Hu- 
man Behavior." Editor: School and Home; Joint Editor: Journal of Educational 
Psychology. 

It is an old saying that experience is the best teacher. One 
may, indeed, go beyond this and say that experience is the 
only real teacher. If we wish to learn about regions that we 
have never visited, we study maps and pictures and verbal 
descriptions of these regions, but our study is quite futile un- 
less we are able to translate these maps and pictures and words 
into our own experiences. We cannot understand an event 
in history unless we are able to imagine ourselves in the same 
situation that conditioned the event, and in order to do this 
we must have had experiences which we can recall and recon- 
struct into a likeness of the situation. We cannot compre- 
hend an industrial process unless we can call upon our ex- 
perience to interpret the various phases of the process and 
their relations to one another and to the process as a whole. 
Theoretically, the most effective kind of education is that in 
which the learner is brought face to face with actual concrete 
situations. Theoretically, geography is best, taught by travel, 
inspection, and surveys ; civics by actual participation in social 
enterprises ; industry by actually turning raw materials into 
useful commodities. But there are many difficulties in the 
way of realizing these theoretical advantages of direct learn- 
ing through actual experiences. Not only is the expense in 
time and money often prohibitive, but the very complexity of 
the actual experiences themselves may easily confuse the 
learner ; he is quite likely to be distracted by the multitude of 
details, and the important lessons are then certain to be over- 
shadowed and obscured. 

Effective teaching depends very largely upon the ability to 
choose just the right details that will force home the impor- 
tant lessons; to provide an abundance of concreteness at just 
the right point. The teacher who is really an artist in the 



x CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION 

work of teaching must know both hozv and where to make 
the important details stand out sharp and clear — how and 
where to place the emphasis. Maps, diagrams, models, and 
pictures may be made most serviceable means to this end. But 
they are most useful only when they accurately portray typical 
situations in a way that will insure a maximum of reality. 
The illustrations in the best modern textbooks are usually well 
selected from the point of view of their accuracy, and as a 
rule they represent typical situations. The approach to reality, 
however, is much more closely realized by pictures projected 
through the stereopticon, by moving pictures, and by stereo- 
graphs. The advantage of the stereograph in insuring the 
illusion of reality lies in the fact that the objects pictured are 
seen in three dimensions. In this respect it is superior to the 
ordinary projected picture in which the approach to reality 
is secured by magnifying the size of the objects represented, 
and for elementary education it is even superior to the moving 
picture in which the illusion of reality is due to movement. 
The stereograph also has the advantage of being more readily 
adaptable to classroom conditions than any form of projected 
picture. 

The first need, of course, is for accurate and typical pic- 
tures taken by skillful stereoscopists under the guidance of 
experts in the various fields. This need is happily met by 
the Keystone " 600 Set." This set includes a rich variety 
of views, representing a wide range of regions and activities. 
The views have been carefully selected and are systematically 
arranged. 

The second need is for supplementary and interpretive ma- 
terials, and these are supplied by the explanatory text on the 
reverse of each slide and by the Teachers' Manual. With 
these aids, the teacher should find no difficulty in training the 
child to put himself into the pictured situation — actually to 
feel that he is there in close contact with the objects or taking 
an active part in the processes that are portrayed. This real- 
istic translation of one's self into the picture is the first condi- 
tion to be fulfilled in picture-study, and the relative ease with 
which this may be accomplished by creating a three-dimen- 
sional or stereoscopic illusion constitutes the unique advan- 
tage of the stereograph as an educational agency. 



HOW TO STUDY STEREOGRAPHS AND 
LANTERN SLIDES 

By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. 

Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
Author: " How to Study and Teaching How to Study "; " Elementary School 
Standards." Joint Author: McMurry and Parkins Geographies; " Method of the 
Recitation." 

Pictures furnish material for thought as does the printed 
page, and they even rival print in that task. How extensively, 
and often exclusively, do advertisers rely upon pictures for 
attracting customers ! Cartoonists compete with the most 
gifted writers in newspapers and magazines ; and the great 
picture galleries of the world quite possibly exert as much 
influence as the great libraries. 

One danger oi the printed page is that it may lead to no 
imaging. A lithe girl who was studying a description in 
geography of a river valley was asked what she saw, as she 
reproduced the facts. She replied that she saw the page con- 
taining the words. There is always this danger in the use of 
books. 

But pictures — particularly those providing for the third 
dimension, as do the stereographs — tend to bring one into the 
presence of the thing itself. A certain pupil who was look- 
ing at a stereograph of a deep gorge unconsciously stepped 
back a few feet to avoid falling in — so actual seemed the 
danger. Such pictures guarantee reality. Since excellence in 
method of presenting ideas is largely measured by the vivid- 
ness with which situations are thus visualized, these pictures 
possess a decided superiority over textbooks. 

This very superiority leads to a serious fault. Since pic- 
tures can do so much for us, they are often relied upon to do 
all ; to convey their facts directly on sight, without any effort 
on our part in the way of studying or thinking. With this 
idea in mind many persons give only a few seconds at most 
to the observation of any picture ; and in consequence they 



xii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

regard pictures more as a means of entertainment than suo- 
jects for study. Teachers, also, assuming that pictures will 
reveal their content at a glance, frequently put no questions on 
them, while printed matter is studied with care. This attitude 
gives pictures a low rank as a means of instruction; for edu- 
cational aids that call forth no effort necessarily bring little 
benefit. 

Even in the actual presence of mountain scenery, or the 
Yellowstone Canyon, or a large factory, one's mind has to 
work actively, if one sees much. One must analyze ex- 
tensively, must raise questions and seek their answers with 
care, in other words, must really study, if one gets much 
profit. Books and pictures, being farther removed from 
teality, require still more effort. The best thoughts in books 
are not in print ; they are suggested by the print, provided the 
reader's mind is awake. So the principal thoughts derived 
from a picture do not come immediately into mind ; they have 
to be sought. Intelligent visitors to picture galleries often 
stand a half hour before a painting, not merely staring at it, 
but studying it ; and they repeat the process day after day. 

Most, if not all, of these six hundred stereographs and 
slides are gems. Many of the ideas that they reveal lie below 
the surface, and in their study some of the spirit of the real 
student is necessary. 

1. In the first place, these pictures should not be examined 
in a hurry. Each pupil should follow his own rate, without 
thought of others, for thoughtful observation is otherwise 
impossible. 

2. One should not look for " just anything " in the picture. 
That is sure to result in very scattered and superficial observa- 
tion. 

In order to avoid careless observation the theme of the 
picture, as suggested in the title should be noted. Also, the 
statements on the back of the card should be read. Mean- 
while the picture should be examined at first, not so much to 
discover its detailed facts, as the principal questions that it 
answers. These questions should bear on the main theme 
for their answers. The conception of such questions is not 
easy work ; it is real study, calling for some initiative ; but 
their nature largely determines the value of the study; they 
are the source of motive for observation, and the basis for or- 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xiii 

ganization of details ; and as much time may well be spent 
in finding the questions as in finding their answers. 

3. The questions having been fixed upon, the more things 
one can discover that bear upon them the better ; for this num- 
ber determines the thoroughness of the knowledge, and the 
force with which impressions are driven home. On the other 
hand, facts unrelated to such questions should be disregarded, 
because any mention of them would be only an interruption. 
Proper study of these pictures will be distinguished almost as 
much by what is omitted, as by what is included. 

4. One should study a picture — or read a book — not 
merely to know what is there, but rather to communicate the 
results to others, either orally or in writing, or otherwise to 
use them. By this provision a sense of what is valuable is 
kept alive and exercised, and one is much more discriminat- 
ing, in consequence. Unless one is willing to be a passive 
collector of facts, their utilization must be held in mind from 
the beginning. 



Note : — It is not generally known that Dr. Oliver Wendell 
Holmes perfected the stereoscope and designed the present form 
of this popular and effective instrument. It has seemed, there- 
fore, appropriate that we should give on the following page a 
quotation from the writings of Dr. Holmes. The statements 
appeared in a series of magazine articles on the stereoscope and 
stereograph published in the Atlantic Monthly. They are copy- 
righted and reproduced through the courtesy of Houghton. 
Mifflin & Co. 

The Publishers. 



THE STEREOSCOPE AND THE 
STEREOGRAPH 

" A stereoscope is an instrument which makes surfaces look 
solid. All pictures in which perspective and light and shade 
are properly managed, have more or less of the effect of 
solidity; but by this instrument that effect is so heightened as to 
produce an appearance of reality which cheats the sense with 
its seeming truth. ... 

" We see something with the second eye which we did not 
see with the first; in other words, the two eyes see different 
pictures of the same thing, for the obvious reason that they look 
from points two or three inches apart. By means of these two 
different views of an object, the mind, as it were, feels round it 
and gets an idea of its solidity. . . . 

" The stereograph, as we have called the double picture 
designed for the stereoscope, is to be the card of introduction 
to make all mankind acquaintances. 

" The first effect of looking at a good photograph through the 
stereoscope is a surprise such as no painting ever produced. The 
mind feels its way into the very depths of the picture. 

" The scraggy branches of a tree in the foreground run out 
at us as if they would scratch our eyes out. The elbow of a 
figure stands forth so as to make us almost uncomfortable. 

" Then there is such a frightful amount of detail, that we have 
the same sense of infinite complexity which Nature gives us. 

" A painter shows us masses ; the stereoscopic figures spare 
us nothing — all must be there, every stick, straw, scratch, as 
faithfully as the dome of St. Peter's, or the summit of Mont 
Blanc, or the ever-moving stillness of Niagara. The sun is no 
respecter of persons or of things. 

" This is one infinite charm of the photographic delineation. 
Theoretically, a perfect photograph is absolutely inexhaustible. 
In a picture you can find nothing which the artist has not seen 
before you; but in a perfect photograph there will be as many 
beauties lurking, unobserved, as there are flowers that blush un- 
seen in forests and meadows. 

" It is a mistake to suppose one knows a stereoscopic picture 
when he has studied it a hundred times by the aid of the best of 
our common instruments. 

" Do we know all there is in a landscape by looking out at 
it from our parlor-windows?" 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

XIV 



HOW TO USE THE STEREOGRAPHS 
AND THE LANTERN SLIDES 

Credit for this chapter on methods cannot properly be given 
to any single educator. It represents the best judgment of 
several thousand superintendents, principals and 'teachers who 
for many years have used the Keystone " 600 Set " of stereo- 
graphs and lantern slides in daily class-room instruction. To 
these and other educational leaders is due the credit for the 
development of these effective methods. 

XV 

In the planning of school work, provision must be made for 
four steps. Regardless of the pedagogical methods used, or 
the names by which they are called, these four steps must re- 
main because they are fundamental to the art of learning. 
They are: (1) the approach; (2) the preparation; (3) the ex- 
pression; (4) the review or organization. 

NATURAL WAY OF LEARNING 

This is the natural procedure. A boy desires a boat. That 
is the approach. He looks at every one he can find, he asks 
questions, he looks at pictures. That is preparation. Finally, 
he makes his boat. That is expression. Then he reviews it 
all, comparing, judging or even planning a better boat. Grown 
larger, the manufacturer is' led by ambition or by some urgent 
desire, to enter into a business. He studies ores, chemical and 
mechanical processes, transportation, markets and a thousand 
other things. He expresses himself in his speech, in his pro- 
ducts, in his purchases, in his sales,. He continually reviews 
all he has learned in order to unify or better organize his work 
in realizing his ideals. 

THE CORRECT PROCESS OF TEACHING 

In school, learning is accomplished in exactly the same way. 

XV 



xvi STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

Therefore, a correct process of teaching must provide for these 
four steps. First the learner must he surrounded with such en- 
vironment that interest, desire will be awakened. Then he 
must be enabled to acquire knowledge which will result in ex- 
pression, and to arrive at true judgments which will help him 
to realize his aim. Finally, he must go back over it all, correct- 
ing and clarifying his ideas, getting wider views, putting to- 
gether the things he has learned separately, building his bits of 
knowledge into the satisfying whole. Such teaching enables 
the learner to develop every faculty. 

EXPERIENCE Till'. FIRST REQUISITE 

The first recphsite is experience. We learn through experi- 
ence. Individual experience gives the raw material out of 
which the child creates his world. The best help that can be 
given to a learner is real experience of the thing to be learned. 
Since that is possible in but a limited number of cases, we send 
him to books. Books cannot supply experience. They can only 
supplement it and give to it a meaning that the individual per- 
haps would not get without them. If compelled to rely wholly 
upon reading or descriptive matter, the child's ideas are too 
often indefinite, inaccurate or wholly wrong. The amount of 
time spent in correcting such concepts is serious. 

STEREOGRAPHS GIVE EXPERIENCE 

Because the stereographs give a third dimension or depth to 
a scene, they give such a semblance of reality as to produce in 
the child's mind the same reaction that would follow the actual 
sight of the thing photographed. To all intents and purposes 
he is looking at the real scene. If stereographs could do no 
more than correct and make definite the ideas gained from read- 
ing, their position would be secure ; but they serve a far greater 
purpose. The stereographs seen through the stereoscope give 
real visual experience and, therefore, constantly add new ideas 
of a definitely related character. Nothing is isolated. They 
show views of objects related in time and space and their 
permanency permits the child to see the same things over and 
over in the same relations. They also show the details. The 
stereoscope shuts out the immediate surroundings and provides 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xvii 

a complete new environment. For these reasons the stereograph 
is a powerful stimulant to thought. 

MATERIAL FOR EVERY GRADE 

Properly selected stereographs may be used with much satis- 
faction and success in every grade including the kindergarten. 
They furnish the basic ideas which will help the children to 
visualize the stories told to them. They are especially help- 
ful in giving the first geographical ideas when the child needs 
concrete concepts of mountains, rivers, lakes, hills and so on. 
They may assist greatly in interpreting the conditions empha- 
sized in home geography, they awaken interest in food and 
clothing, people and industries of home and foreign lands. 
The intense realism of the stereographs arouses so deep an in- 
terest on the part of the pupil that expression is stimulated. 
Language development has been a marked result of the intro- 
duction of stereographs in class room instruction. Every 
teacher of history appreciates the value of visualization. 
Stereographs and slides of the topics studied prove a wonder- 
ful help in giving a vivid setting to the events described. 

DRAMATIZATION 

Stereographs lend themselves exceedingly well to furnishing 
ideas for dramatization which is in itself but another form of 
visualizaton. It is one of the first methods of expression in 
the lives of children, very much of the earliest play being in the 
form of dramatization. As self consciousness grows, the power 
is too often lost. Dramatizing helps us to see visions. It 
makes a whole set of experiences into a unity which has great 
value to the learning mind. No child can dramatize what he, 
himself, has not visualized. Let the children study the stereo- 
graphs for ideas of costume and actions which they may use. 

DESCRIPTIONS 

The children should know, of course, that the description on 
the back of the picture is extremely valuable in interpreting the 
scene. It shows what the picture meant to some one else who 
has seen it. These descriptions are written clearly. The vocab- 
ulary is simple and the sentences are short. As an additional 



xviii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

help, the difficult proper names are marked diacritically. They 
are prepared with great care so that pupils as low as the fourth 
grade can handle them readily. 

, COORDINATION 

Not only is it of first importance that all subject matter be 
carefully visualized but it is extremely vital that the illus- 
trations be supplied at the right time. The correct time to em- 
ploy the stereograph is at the point when the pupils are grop- 
ing for concrete conceptions of the topic studied. Then the in- 
terest is keenest and results most pronounced. The Teacher's 
Guide will aid in selecting the scenes that will fit in with the 
daily program. It will be found that this "600 Set" is so rich 
in illustrative material that it can be readily fitted to any text 
or school program. There have been prepared pamphlets 
paralleling the Brigham and McFarlane, McMurray and Park- 
ins, and the Frye-Atwood geographies. These are supplied 
with your stereograph or slide set. 

METHODS OF USE 

The fundamental idea in presenting the stereograph to a class 
was expressed by a superintendent thus — "I like this material. 
All you have to do with the pupils is just expose them to it. 
It takes." The problem with each teacher is how she may must 
effectively "expose" her pupils to these stereographs, producing 
the maximum benefit with the minimum effort. Various ways 
of successfully operating the stereographs immediately sug- 
gest themselves. The one best 'suited will be determined by 
school conditions. 

REFERENCE TABLE PLAN 

Usually, a teacher will anticipate the needs of her pupils and 
will select the stereograph which she thinks will contribute to 
the work. She may place this in a stereoscope upon a table 
convenient to the pupils. This is frequently done a day or two 
in advance. The children may study it at their leisure, or may 
be sent to it individually when the psychological moment ar- 
rives. This usually is considered the best plan for the study of 
stereographs. Make it very clear to the pupils that the de- 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xix 

scription on the back will help them to understand the view. 
This plan gives each child the greatest possible time with the 
stereograph and the most independent action. He learns 
largely by his own initiative. 

SEAT STUDY PLAN 

Sometimes the selected view is placed in a stereoscope and 
passed in a regular order during the time for preparation. One 
or two stereographs bearing directly upon the work may be 
studied very thoroughly and systematically in very brief time. 
Each pupil gives to each view only the short time needed to fix 
the images and read the descriptions. Some teachers save time 
by having the description read before the stereograph is passed. 

DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING PLANS 

Where the school is organized departmentally and the teacher 
has the pupils for a brief study and a discussion period, time 
will be gained by devoting a few minutes to the study of the 
stereograph by the plan mentioned above. Where the 
teacher is not able to supervise the preparation, two or three 
minutes of the recitation time may well be used for an in- 
tensive study of the stereograph. A pupil places a stereo- 
graph in a stereoscope and passes it, permitting each child to 
look at it for a very brief time. Before or while it is being 
passed this pupil gives so that all the others may hear, a brief 
statement which he has prepared from a previous study of the 
scene and its description. The pupils are told exactly what to 
look for and one child, each day, gets practice in public speak- 
ing. Both the scene and the explanation may be given to a 
class of forty pupils in from two to three minutes. If five 
minutes can be spared, it can be used advantageously for it per- 
mits a longer observation time for each pupil. Some may 
doubt that a scene rich in teaching content can be presented 
effectively in the time stated. These do not fully realize the 
efficiency of Visual Instruction by the Keystone method. 
Wherever possible the stereographs should be placed upon the 
reference table for further observation and study as opportun- 
ity affords. 

NUMBER OF VIEWS TO BE USED 

There is a temptation to the teacher to give out too many 



xx STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

stereographs at one time. I 'est results are usually obtained by 
using only a few most carefully chosen to show certain definite 
ideas as clearly as possible. The number of pictures used 
depends upon the subject, the pictures, and the age of the pupils. 
Sharp distinction must be drawn between real study and a 
"picture show." So long as pictures will enlarge experience 
and throw light upon the subject studied, so long as they 
clearly illustrate, they are a vital part of the studying; but as 
soon as they become an object of attention in themselves and 
for themselves— or when a greater number are offered than 
can be seriously studied in the time limit — they are part of a 
"picture show," dissipating the pupils' time and energy. 

The use of just one scene every day in the lower tirades and 
9 not more than two a day in upper grades, if followed faithfully 
will give large returns for time and effort expended — in fact 
will prove a real time saver. Never attempt the use of a greater 
number in one day until after you have thoroughly tested this 
system. Let the use of an increased number come only after 
careful measurement of results secured. Experience in thou- 
sands of schools lias clearly shown that the careful study of 
but one or two scenes every day means much more to the pupil 
than the careless or hurried examination of a larger number. 

SOME EXAMPLES 

When studying the first battle of the Revolution the stereo- 
graph No. 10 of Lexington Common placed on the reference 
table in advance will bring to the discussion a lively presenta- 
tion of the scene. No. 98 dealing with the Story of Captain 
John Smith. No. 6 ( )ld North Church, No. 80 < )ld Liberty Bell, 
and many others tell their story in an effective way day by day 
as the topics occur in the regular course. No. 530 is a good 
illustratic n of how a racial type and a tea plantation may be pre- 
sented nicely in a single stereograph. The day that brings this 
scene only to a class room will be a day well worth while. 
No. 294 Harvesting Bananas tells an interesting story of the 
manner of growth and handling of this important fruit. No. 
108 Harvesting Pineapples not only shows how this popular 
fruit is prepared for market but corrects a widespread mis- 
conception as to the habit of growth of the pineapple. Before 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxi 

placing this view on the tahle, or passing it during a study 
period, check up the present knowledge of the pupils. You 
may be surprised at how much they know about it that isn't 
true. Xo. 276 tells the whole life history of a glacier from the 
snow cloud in the mountain top to the stream in the valley be- 
low, all in a single scene. The material in this scene is ample 
for a day's presentation in lower grades but in an upper grade 
a detailed view such as No. 274 or No. 275 may well be added. 
Even when studying a definite unit such as an industry, a par- 
ticular region, or an historical grouping, it will usually be 
found that the subject naturally divides itself into topics which 
may be covered by two or three stereographs and these pre- 
sented on a given day to be followed by another topic. For 
instance in the study of cotton No. 207 shows the cultivation of 
the plant and No. 117 shows the picking of the cotton. These 
naturally go together. Next we have the ginning and trans- 
portation, then the manufacturing processes. 

A class may be studying woolen textiles. The children may 
have had some experience with wool and its uses. Through 
the three dimension picture they can see sheep and watch men 
cutting the wool. Perhaps, some one has been able to get some 
wool for them to wash and twist into thread, the primitive way 
of spinning. Then they weave the threads together making 
cloth. Through the stereograph again, they can see these 
same processes on a larger scale, done by machinery more 
quickly and better than is possible by hand. In their own 
clothes or those of the people about them they see the products 
of the operations and are brought into a natural, wholesome 
relation to the industrial world. Such a use of the stereo- 
graphs creates a genuine enthusiasm for they act as a vital 
stimulant to thought development. 

VISUALIZING HISTORY PROBLEMS 

Suppose that an advanced history class has reached the 
subject of the development of the far West and the building of 
transcontinental railroad. The United States had taken 
possession of the west coast, California had been admitted as 
a state. The great problem of the day was transportation. 
It was primarily an economic problem. Instead of giving 



xxii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

children the formal statements of a text written about the sub- 
ject, give them the stereographs of the great plains, of the high 
ranges and peaks of the Rocky Mountain regions, of deserts, of 
canyons, of the Sierra Nevadas, and of the rich mines and fer- 
tile valleys of the Pacific Coast. Show them teams of horses 
or oxen with the old Conestoga wagons. They will visualize 
the conditions which made up the problem of that earlier day. 
Show them stereographs of those great railroads in mountain 
passes and canyons. They will understand why land grants 
were made, and how the complete dependence of the people 
upon the railroads made them the dominant factor in that life. 
The story of the abuse of that power, of the struggle for 
control, will be real to them. Through visualization students 
will study life, for they will have actual facts upon which to 
reflect and form judgments. From the clear, distinct ideas 
gained in such study it is possible for their minds to reach 
farther, to realize that this problem of communication was a 
problem of government also; that upon it depended the coast- 
to-coast nation and the mental unity that could make these 
widely separated communities into one people. There is no 
doubt that such training, giving experiences that are clear and 
forceful, will make better citizens facing the difficulties of 
their own time with keener perceptions of underlying problems, 
with broader sympathies, and with greater hopefulness. 

COMBINATION STEREOGRAPHS AND SLIDES 

The stereograph is eminently fitted for individual work. It 
is supreme among visual aids and will more nearly stand alone 
than any other. Each child gets his own reaction from his 
study of the view, no two children get exactly the same results 
because no two children are exactly alike in their experiences. 
If the same view is thrown on a screen during the conference 
period, memory brings to each child the record of his experi- 
ence. There will be differences and each child will make his 
own personal contribution to the group. There will be com- 
parison, quick judgment, each will give and take, and from the 
variants will be built a well rounded whole. The combination 
of stereograph and lantern slide is an ideal grouping of material 
for learning. 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxiii 

LANTERN SLIDES FOR REVIEW 

When a subject has been worked over by the children there 
should come a review for the purpose of getting a better grasp 
of materials so that they can be put to use; not necessarily any 
use, but a specific use in line with their projects either now or 
in the future. A review gives a rounded survey of the material 
previously studied in detail and it corrects erroneous impres- 
sions and misunderstandings. Here is where the lantern slides 
work effectively. Select the slides duplicating the stereographs 
which have been used day by day. Memory will recall the ex- 
perience obtained through the stereographs; but now relations 
will be emphasized. The detached parts will come together 
into a unity. The review with the lantern slides enables the 
child to visualize a series of related ideas and get a mental 
grasp of the whole. 

EXPRESSION A RESULT OF VISUAL EXPERIENCE 

As a result of the new freedom born of visual experience, 
the child seeks and finds some mode of expression. In a 
natural way he approaches his project and gathers the knowl- 
edge which will enable him to carry it to completion. At 
every step he sees something which helps to clarify his ideas 
and to organize them into a form which will give his motive 
forces greater and greater freedom in moving toward the reali- 
zation of his project. Merely doing or making something is 
not necessarily a true project, does not necessarily involve 
learning. The essential elements of a proper school project 
are that the coercive force shall come from within, be subject- 
ive not objective ; that the pupil shall think new thoughts, and 
that the result shall be an expression of that thought. This 
power of self expression does not come to the child by follow- 
ing in detail the teacher's orders ; neither does it necessarily 
follow reading. It comes when the mind contains such a 
wealth of concrete ideas that the child has both the desire and 
the conscious power to produce. "We may be able to repeat 
a lot of things about something but we really know it when we 
visualize it and can use it." 

EXPRESSION THROUGH SPEECH 

"When you wish to develop English, and particularly oral 



xxiv STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

English in an elementary school pupil, what you want more 
than anything else is that he shall have a live experience that 
he is anxious to relate — a story that he is eager to tell. Then 
get him on his feet to tell it and out of this struggle to express 
himself will come the power of expression. The average pupil 
in our elementary schools is usually lacking in the experiences 
that he is eager to relate. You give him these stereoscopic ex- 
periences that are so vivid and so real that, to him, they are 
real experiences and he will talk just as freely concerning them 
as the experiences he has personally undergone," says Dr. 
J. F. Hosic. Visualization helps the child to find expression in 
speech. When his ideas are clarified by visual experience, he 
has something to say and usually likes to say it. The sense of 
# security which comes from the consciousness of a store of 
definite ideas gives him freedom and helps him to organize 
his material according to relations or sequence. Grammatical 
errors may be corrected more easily and more effectively be- 
cause of his mental attitude. He is quick to realize that 
corrections are made in order that he may express, instead of 
feeling that he is made to express for the purpose of being 
corrected. 

WRITTEN' EXPRESSION 

After a given scene has been studied carefully it may well 
be taken as a theme for written work. Each pupil will have 
the subject matter well in hand — he will know what to say and 
can center his thought on how best to say it. This type of 
written work gives pleasing results. From hundreds of 
schools have come comments upon how rapidly the pupils have 
gone forward in English when using the stereographs and 
slides in the daily program. 

VISUALIZATION DEVELOPES INITIATIVE 

The stereographs first arouse in the child a desire for doing 
and knowing, they awaken initiative. Next they enable him to 
learn from his own experience, and give him independence 
in his own thought and action. Then he must be trained to 
review, to judge his projects and his problems. He must get 
a grasp of the thing in its entirety, its place, its use. There 
has been too much instruction of the child, too little natural 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxv 

mental growth. Today the teacher is assuming his proper 
function, that of leader and director whose work is to bring 
to the child in the proper form and at the proper time the ma- 
terials by which he may grow. Books, speech, pictures, charts, 
maps all make a valuable contribution. The stereograph en- 
ables the child to visualize and make clear and correct his work 
of today. By so doing, it makes him a part of real life and 
helps him to get visions of what shall be tomorrow. 

OUTLINES OF TEACHING CONTENT 

Keystone Stereographs and Lantern slides are rich in teaching 
content. It is a pleasant surprise to note how many specific illustra- 
tions of important teaching points each scene, contains. That this fea- 
ture may be presented more clearly, outlines for serial numbers 564, 
117, 276, 80, 6 and 530 are here presented. The other scenes in the 
entire series may be treated in the same way. One, then, comes to 
realize more fully the teaching value of the complete " 600 Set " and the 
advantage of the various classifications as given in the Teachers' Guide. 

SCENE 564 

1. Buildings. 

(a) Pyramid — Historical significance. 

(b) Adobe hut — peasant homes — crude construction. 

(c) Note small pyramid. 

2. People. 

(a) Race. 

(b) Oriental customs. 

(c) Tropical dress. 

(d) Method of carrying burdens. 

(e) Native children. 

3. Vegetation. 

(a) Palm trees. 

(b) Rushes and reeds. 

4. Water. 

(a) Overflow of river (enriching arid lands). 

(b) Other related ideas. 

1. Source — from higher altitude and interior rain belt 

2. Empties — where — why by delta ? 

5. Animals. 

(a) Camel. 

1. Desert method of transportation. 

2. Oriental custom of travel. 

3. Find second camel. 

(b) Water fowl. 

6. Topograph}'. 

(n) River flood plain. 



xxvi STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 

SCENE 117 

1. Vegetation. 

(a) Cotton. 

1. Height (two to four feet). 

2. Plant, annual, woody bush, cotton fibers and seeds 

are utilized. 

2. Topography. 

(a) Lowlands. 

3. People. 

(a) Black race. 

1. Characteristic kinky hair, thick lips, flat nose. 

2. Children. 

4. Other observations. 

(a) Shape of cotton boll. 

(b) Method of gathering the cotton. Note basket and bags. 

(c) Absence of leaves on cotton plant and trees in background 

indicate fall of year. 

(d) Cotton plant is obtained from seed planted in rows about 

three feet apart. 

5. Number of people in addition to those observed in foreground at 

first glance. 

6. Clothing of people. 

SCENE 276 

1. Mountain peaks — sharp, angular, young mountains. 

2. Mountain range — series of peaks with depressions between. 

3. Valleys — small, young mountain valleys. 

4. Clouds — striking against mountain top. 

5. Snow fields accumulated in depressions. 

6. Glaciers formed from snow above and melting below. 

7. Rivulets, streams, source of river. 

8. Fir trees — varying in size. 

9. Altitude (effect on vegetation and climate — timber line, snow 

line). 

10. Weathering — erosion, talus cones at foot of mountain. 

11. Moraines — material deposited by glacial action. 

12. Rock formation — strata. 

SCENE 80 
Liberty Bell. 

I. Historical Significance. 

(a) Rung at the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. 

(b) Tapped with silver hammer, Liberty Loan, 1917. 

II. Story of Bell. 

(a) Imported from England, 1752. 

(b) Broken on trial ringing. 

(c) Recast in Philadelphia, 1753. 



STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xxvii 

(d) Removed to Lancaster, 1777. 

(e) Returned to State House where it served until 1828. 

(f) Received its present crack while tolling at funeral of 

Chief Justice Marshall, 1835. 

(g) Shown at International Exhibitions. 

(h) Its present location, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 
Pa. 
Note, (a) Crack. 

(b) Motto — Proclaim liberty throughout all 

the land unto all the inhabit- 
ants thereof. 

(c) Simple design of bell. 

(d) Weathered wooden cross beam. 

(e) Artistic iron frame. 
III. Related facts pertaining to Independence Hall. 

(a) Erected 1729 to 1734. 

(b) Seat of first Continental Congress. 

(c) Intimately connected with birth of nation. 

(d) Here Washington was made Commander-in-Chief of 

army, 1775. 

(e) Now Museum of Revolutionary and Historical relics. 

(f) Here Declaration of Independence was signed, July 4, 

1776. 

SCENE 6 

1. Historical Old North Church. 

2. Tenement life in crowded city district. 

(a) Tenants — evidently of foreign birth. 

(b) Children. 

(c) Home — unattractive buildings at right. 

(d) Playground. 

1. Granite paved street and gutter. 

2. Sidewalk lined with ash and garbage cans. 

3. Other observations. 

(a) Modern overhanging arc street light. 

(b) Abandoned gas light post. 

(c) Telephone conduit and wires. 

(d) Provision for outdoor life on roofs of buildings and iron 

balconies. 

(e) Brick and concrete paving on side walk. 

(f) Water hydrant (fire protection). 

(g) Vegetation. 

1. Trees maintaining life under difficult city conditions. 

2. Flower boxes in some windows, 
(h) Old frame buildings still remain. 

(i) Transportation. 

1. Human carriers. 

2. Horse and wagon. 



xxviii STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES 



SCENE 530 

1. People. 

(a) Racial characteristics. 

1. Facial features, high cheek bones, slant eyes. 

2. Small stature. 

3. Optimism. 

4. Thrift, suggested by intensive cultivation of land. 

(b) Dress. 

1. Simplicity. 

2. Design and pattern of costume. 

3. Foot wear. 

4. Rice straw hat. 

2. Vegetation. 

(a) Tea on uplands, (utilizing hills and providing good 

drainage). 

(b) Rice on lowlands, (irrigation supplying moisture). 

3. Topography. 

(a) Hills and valleys. 

4. Related ideas. 

(a) Only the tea leaf is utilized. 

(b) The plant is a perennial. 

(c) Terracing of hillside to utilize all the land surface. 

5. Other detailed features. 

(a) Other tea pickers. 

(b) Tea sheds and village. 

(c) Method of carrying basket for freedom of hands in pick- 

ing tea. 



EDITORIAL BOARD 

General Introduction 
By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. 

President-Emeritus of Harvard University 

CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION 
By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. 

Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: 
"The Educative Process"; "Class Room Management"; "Craftsmanship in 
Teaching"; "Educational Values"; "School Discipline." Joint Author: 
" Human Behavior." Editor: School and Home. Joint Editor: Journal of 

Educational Psychology. 

How to Study Stereographs and Lantern Slides 
By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. 

Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
Author: "How to Study and Teaching How to Study"; "Elementary School 
Standards." Joint Author: McMurray and Parkins Geographies; "Method of the 
Recitation." 

GEOGRAPHY 

INTRODUCTION 

By Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. 

Controller and Professor of Geography, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
Joint Author: Brigham & McFarlane, " Essentials of Geography." 

1. Geographical Classification and Title List 
By D. C. Ridgley, A.B. 

Professor of Geography, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111. Author: 
"Important Topics in Geography"; "Home Geography." 

In this chapter is presented the title list of the 600 stereo- 
graphs and lantern slides which actual class-room use has dem- 
onstrated as the most effective for purposes of instruction. 
They are classified geographically by continents and political 
divisions and give 600 references to the important countries of 
the world. (See page 3.) 

xxix 



xxx EDITORIAL BOARD 

2. People of All Lands (Racial Geography) 
By Mark Jefferson, A.M. 

Professor of Geography, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. 
Author of "Teachers' Geography"; "Materials for the Geography of Michigan"; 
" Exercises on the Topographic Map." Associate Editor: Journal of Geography. 

142 stereographs and slides to which 143 references are 
made, illustrating the distinguishing features of the great 
races of mankind and their branches and to show the racial 
characteristics and development of the great nations. At the 
same time this classification, by showing homes, clothing, use 
of implements and industrial processes, necessarily differenti- 
ates peoples according to their civilization. (See page 31.) 

3. Production and Manufacturing (Industrial 

Geography) 

By Charles Redway Dryer, M.A., M.D. 

Geographer, Fort Wayne, Ind. Formerly Professor of Geography and Geology, 
Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Author: " Studies in Indiana 
Geography"; "Lessons in Physical Geography"; "Geography, Physical, Eco- 
nomic and Regional"; "Natural Economic Geography." 

400 stereographs and slides with 894 references showing 
. our industrial resources and equipment. The classification is 
divided into two main parts, the first of which deals with indus- 
tries as units under the subheads, Foods, Clothing, Mining 
and Mineral Industries, Lumbering and Forest Products, and 
Irrigation. In the second part the process is the fundamental 
idea presented under the headings, Collective, Productive, Con- 
structive and Distributive Industries. (See page 45.) 

4. Transportation 
By Emery R. Johnson, Ph.D., Sc.D. 

Dean and Professor of Transportation and Commerce, University of Pennsyl- 
vania. Author " Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Transportation," 1893; 
"American Railway Transportation," 1903; "Ocean and Inland Water Transporta- 
tion," 1906; " Elements of Transportation," 1909; " Railroad Traffic and Rates," 
I9II; "Panama Canal Traffic and Tolls," 1912; "Measurement of Vessels for 
the Panama Canal," 1913; "History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the 
United States," 2 vols., 1915; " Principles of Railroad Transportation"; " Prin- 
ciples of Ocean Transportation." 

The classification of Transportation presents 322 stereo- 
graphs and slides with 372 references thereto, It makes plain 
the universal dependence of modern life upon means of trans- 



EDITORIAL BOARD xxxi 

portation. Every method of carrying, both primitive and 
modern, is illustrated. Human carriers, beasts of burden, 
carts, wagons, railroad trains, water craft from the Chinese 
junk to the great ocean liner or submarine and airplanes are 
9hown so classified that the part each one takes in the world's 
work is easily seen. (See page 73.) 



5. Markets and Marketing 
By J. Paul Goode, Ph.D. 

Professor of Geography, University of Chicago. Specialist in Economic Geog- 
raphy and Cartography. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. Lecturer and 
writer on " Commercial and Economic Geography." Author of important series 
of wall maps for schools and colleges. 

156 stereographs and slides showing the ever increasing idea 
which the word " market " may be made to convey. In this 
classification are shown, first, the Primitive Markets where 
trade is direct. Then the Great Market Centers where the 
buying and selling is done for a large territory are seen. Next 
come the Production Centers where commodities are handled 
in such quantities as to establish a World Market, and last 
Regions with a Large Demand for a certain commodity are 
shown to be Markets for that commodity. (See page 87.) 



6. Natural Forms and Forces (Physical Geography) 
By Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D. 

.President of Clark University. Formerly Professor of Physiography, Harvard 
University; Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. Author of "Interpretation of 
Topographic Maps" ; " Geological and Mineral Resources of the Alaskan Penin- 
sula "; " Physical Geography of the Devil's Lake Region," etc. 

During past ages the surface of the earth has been changed 
by natural forces including the atmosphere, ground and sur- 
face water, snow, and ice and internal forces such as heat and 
pressure, and by organic agencies including man. These 
forces have produced the mountains, hills and volcanoes, the 
lakes and rivers, the capes, peninsulas and islands — all these 
actions and results are illustrated in this classification of 200 
stereographs and slides with 350 references. (See page 97.) 



xxxii EDITORIAL BOARD 

7. Zones and Their Effect on Life. Elevation of 
Land (Altitude) and Its Effect on Life 

By Robert De C. Ward, A.M. 

Professor of Climatology, Harvard University. Author of " Practical Exer- 
cises in Elementary Meteorology"; "Climate, Considered Especially in Relation 
to Man." Translator of Julius Hann's " Handbuch der KJimatologie," Vol 1, 
2nd ed. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. 

174 stereographs and slides with 186 references presenting 
the effect of climate (whether resulting from position or alti- 
tude) upon the general appearance of a country, upon vegeta- 
tion, crops, occupations and dwellings — are the basis of this 
classification. Climatic controls over the earth's surface and 
its flora, and man's mode of life under the limitations imposed 
by climate, are well illustrated in the views selected. (See 
page 109.) 

8. Geography by Nations (Political Geography) 

By E. M. Lehnerts, A.M. 

Head of the Department and Professor of Geology and Geography, Hunter 

College, New York City; Lecturer in Geography, Teachers College Columbia Uni- 
versity. Associate" Editor Journal of Geography. 

A classification of 245 stereographs and slides with 370 ref- 
erences, showing the extent and distribution of each great 
nation's possessions,, something of the geographic factors in 
each nation's development and the extent of governmental 
freedom existing throughout the world. (See page 121.) 

9. Earth Neighbors 
By James F. Chamberlain, Ed.B., S.B. 

President State Normal School, Silver City, N. M. ; Associate Editor Journal 
of Geography. Author: " Field and Laboratory Exercises in Physical Geography' ; 
" How" We "Are Fed"; "How We Are Clothed"; ''How We Are Sheltered '; 
" How We Travel "; " North America "; " Europe "; " Asia "; " South America ' ; 
"Africa"; ''Geography: Physical, Economic, Regional." 

76 stereographs and slides, with 99 references, dealing not 
only with telescopic photographs of the sun, moon, planets, 
comets, etc., but with those scenes upon the earth which show 
the influences of these earth neighbors upon human affairs. 
(See page 140.) 



EDITORIAL BOARD xxxiii 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 

INTRODUCTION 
By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. 

Eaton Professor of Government in Harvard University. 

10. Foreign Beginnings of American History 
By Hutton Webster, Ph.D. 

Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Nebraska. Author of 

"Ancient History"; "Early European History "; ''Readings in Ancient 

History "; and " Readings in Medieval and Modern History "; 

Medieval and Modern History "; " World History." 

This classification of 69 stereographs and slides has been 
made with the purpose of setting forth the foreign background 
of American history ; to trace its people with their habits and 
customs to their sources in order that American History may 
not be isolated but may be seen in its relation to the rest of 
the world's story. (See page 150.) 

11. Foundations of the American Nation 
By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. 

Eaton Professor of Government in Harvard University. Author of ." Essentials 
of American Hisory "; "Formation of the Union"; " Guide to the Study and 
Heading of American History"; "The Monroe Doctrine"; "National Ideas His- 
torically Traced"; "New American History"; "Salmon P. Chase"; "School 
History of the United States"; "Slavery and Abolition"; "Southern South," 
etc. Editor of the American Nation, " Cyclopedia of American Government "; 
"American Citizen Series"; "Epochs of American History"; "American His- 
tory Told by Contemporaries"; "American Patriots and Statesmen," etc. 

91 stereographs and slides with 122 references. " The pur- 
pose of this classification is to introduce the pupil to the for- 
mative period of American history, extending from the earliest 
discoveries by Europeans to the organization of the govern- 
ment under the constitution of 1787. This naturally includes 
the physical background, the face of the country, then the orig- 
inal inhabitants and finally some of the scenes of their colonial 
and revolutionary history." (See page 158.) 



xxxiv EDITORIAL BOARD 

12. The Development of Our Nation 

By H. Morse Stephens, M.A., Litt.D. 

Formerly Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Author: 
•History of the French Revolution"; "The Story of Portugal"; 
"Revolutionary Europe"; ''Colonial Civil Service." 

203 stereographs and slides with 309 references " to make 
young people realize that their country has in time past been 
carried on by people like themselves ; to make them familiar 
with social and economic life of the past as well as with polit- 
ical events and let them feel that constitutions, presidents, 
wars, battles, treaties are only the external parts. They are 
of value only so far as they illustrate the great theme of the 
nation's growth, the nation's mind and the nation's standards." 
(See page 164.) 

13. America of Today — Our Resources — Preparedness 
By Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S. 

Geographer and Meteorologist, United States Government. Author: " Manual 

of Geography." Joint Author: "Natural Geographies"; "Commercial 

Geography"; "Elementary Physical Geography"; Redway School 

History "; " Book of the United States." 

This classification presents 169 stereographs and slides, with 
202 references which " will lead children to find causes and 
results of political life in economic conditions, and to under- 
stand that history is not the action of leaders but of the mass 
of people." This classification compares our resources with 
that of other countries. (See page 177.) 

14. Government 
By Arthur Norman Holcombe, Ph.D. 

Professor of Government in Harvard University. Author of " Public Ownership 

of Telephones on the Continent of Europe "; " State Government 

in the United States." 

This classification of 287 stereographs and slides with 518 
references aims to present the topic of government from the 
constitutional and institutional view point. The operations of 
government in many situations and under many conditions are 
noted. One will not fail to note the helpful way in which this 
chapter and the following one on Community Civics supple- 
ment each other. (See page 188.) 



EDITORIAL BOARD xxxv 



15. Community Civics 
By Arthur William Dunn, A.M. 

Associate National Director Junior Red Cross; Formerly Specialist in Civic 

Education, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 

Author of " Community Civics." 

299 stereographs and slides with 806 references. " The aim 
of community civics is to help the child to know his commun- 
ity, not merely a lot of facts about it, but the meaning of his 
community life, what it does for him and how it does it; 
what the community has a right to expect from him and how 
he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile cultivating in him the 
essential qualities and habits of good citizenship." (See 
page 200.) 

16. The Cities of the World 
By John Nolen, A.M., Sc.D. 

City Planner, Landscape Architect, Boston, Mass. 

275 stereographs and slides with 800 references, showing 
the wonderful urban development of the modern world. And 
because this is new, and the city is one of the main problems 
of modern democratic society, this classification analyzes cities 
in their growth and plans, their size and dominant functions. 
Its purpose is to create intelligent control of civic conditions 
instead of passive acceptance. (See page 215.) 

ENGLISH 

INTRODUCTION 

By Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D., Litt.D. 

Professor of English Language and Literature, Teachers College, 
Columbia University. 

17. Literary Subjects and Settings 
By Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D., Litt.D. 

Professor of English Language and Literature, Teachers College, 
Columbia University. 

200 stereographs and slides with 338 references. The ed- 
itor, following the idea that the trend of modern education has 
been steadilv away from interest in mere words to interest in 



xxxvi EDITORIAL BOARD 

the ideas and things which words denote, has selected those 
views which illustrate the literature most commonly presented 
to pupils. The classification emphasizes the fact that knowl- 
edge obtained by the senses, especially sight, is the basis for 
both the creation and real appreciation of literary merit. (See 
page 240.) 

18. English Composition 
By James Fleming Hosic, Ph.M., Ph.D. 

Associate Professor of Education in charge of Extramural Courses, Teachers 

College, Columbia University; Editor of E.nglish Journal and Journal of 

Educational Methods. Secretary, The National council of 

Teachers of English. Joint Author: " Practical English 

for High Schools"; "A Composition Grammar." 

This classification of 350 stereographs with 900 references 
is made to assist growth in power of English expression. 
" Children in elementary grades cannot speak nor write ef- 
fectively when burdened with the consciousness of form." 
What they need is a real audience and something definite to 
say. The Keystone plan fills these needs. The editor has 
grouped together a series of possibilities for interesting com- 
position work, oral and written. The classification includes a 
variety of business letters concerning real business. (See 
page 250.) 



AGRICULTURE 

INTRODUCTION 

By Charles F. Curtiss, M.S.A., D.S. 

Dean Division of Agriculture and Director of the Experiment Station, 
Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 

19. Soils 
By Alfred Vivian, Ph.G. 

Dean College of Agriculture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Author: 

"First Principles of Soil Fertility"; "Everyday Chemistry"; "A Farmer's 

Tour around the World." 

68 stereographs and slides with 76 references, which illus- 
trate the formation of soils, the kinds and something of their 
management. (See page 269.) 



EDITORIAL BOARD xxxvii 

20. Farm crops 
By W. M. Jardine, B.S.A., LL.D. 

President Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kan. 

78 stereographs and slides with 99 references to show what 
crops come from the farm and how they are raised. (See 
page 276.) 

21. Garden, Orchard and Woodlot 
By R. L. Watts, M.S. 

Professor of Horticulture, Dean Department of Agriculture and Director of the 
Experiment Station, State Agricultural College, State College, Pa. 

This selection of 48 stereographs and slides with 49 refer- 
ences enables the editor to present many helpful items of in- 
struction dealing with the garden products, orcharding and the 
timber supply of the woodlot. There is included an interest- 
ing classification on Landscape Gardening. (See page 284.) 

22. Animal Husbandry 
By W. A. Cochel, A.B., B.S. 

Field Representative of American Short Horn Breeders' Association. Formerly 

Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas State Agricultural College, 

Manhattan, Kan. 

36 selected stereographs and slides with 37 references illus- 
trate the value of livestock as a dominant factor in agricul- 
ture. From primitive herding to the highly complex business 
of the modern feed lot the important items in animal hus- 
bandry are shown. (See page 291.) 

23. Farm Management — Farm Machinery 

By Martin Luther Fisher, M.S. 

Professor of Crop Production and Farm Management and in charge Department «f 
Agronomy, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 

Assisted by Wm. Aitkenhead, A.M., M.E. 

Associate Professor of Farm Mechanics, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 

This classification of 96 stereographs and slides with 238 
references analyzes and illustrates " the handling of the farm 
and its equipment so as to produce farm products with the 
greatest profit and still maintain or even increase the produc- 
tiveness of the soil." (See page 297.) 



xxxviii EDITORIAL BOARD 

24. Farm Home and Farm Life 
By A. E. Winship, Litt.D., LL.D. 

Lecturer, Editor Journal of Education, Boston. Author: "The Shop"; "Life 

of Horace Mann"; "Great American Educators"; "Jukes-Edwards"; 

" Our Boys." 

114 stereographs and slides with 200 references presenting 
the farm as a home rather than as a business. They show the 
farm home, the farmer's independence, the scientific knowl- 
edge needed in his work, the methods of working and the social 
side of country life. (See page 311.) 

NATURE STUDY 

INTRODUCTION 

By Ernest Thompson Seton 

Naturalist and Author. Greenwich. Conn. Founder and Chief Woodcraft League 

25. Plants and Plant Associations 
By John M. Coulter, Ph.D. 

Professor and Head Dept. of Botany, University of Chicago. 

Assisted by George D. Fuller, Ph.D. 

Assistant Professor of Botany, L T niversity of Chicago. 

This classification of 184 stereographs and slides with 358 
references deals with plants, their kinds, their relation to each 
other, and the factors which determine what plants can live 
on a given area. (See page 320.) 

26. Animals 
By Ernest Thompson Seton 

Naturalist and Author, Greenwich, Conn. Founder and Chief Woodcraft League. 

143 stereographs and slides with 156 references selected to 
show a great range of animals both domestic and wild with 
something of their natures, habits and their uses to man. (See 
page 331.) 

27. Out Door Life 

Boy Scouts, Campfire Girls, Woodcraft League 

By Daniel Carter Beard ("Dan Beard") 

Honorary Vice-President, and National Scout Commissioner, Boy Scouts of 
America, Flushing, N. Y. 



EDITORIAL BOARD xxxix 

356 stereographs and slides, with 369 references which carry 
us on hikes anywhere on the face of the globe. This series 
encourages outdoor life and at the same time shows how the 
imagination and Keystone Views together enable us to travel 
over the world, " to hit the trail back through history." The 
classification suggests many themes and lends itself especially 
as an aid to English Composition. (See page 341.) 

28. Vocational Guidance 
By Meyer Bloomfield, B.A. 

Editor and Publisher of Industrial Relations, Boston, Mass. Author: "Vocational 
Guidance of Youth"; "The School and the Start in Life"; "Youth, 
School and Vocation." 

These 130 stereographs and slides with 170 references bring 
the most helpful thought that everything we use and enjoy is 
the result of our own or some one else's labor, and that to do 
one's work well means skill, thought, effort and sacrifice. The 
classification presents the best possible introduction for chil- 
dren to the vital subject of choosing a life career. (See 
page 347.) 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ART 

INTRODUCTION 

By Martha Van Rensselaer, A.B. 

Professor of Home Economics, and Director of Extension Dept. of Home 

Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Editor and Author 

of " Reading Course for Farm Home." 

29. Industries Supplying the Home 
By Lorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D. 

President of Stout Institute, Menominee. Wis. Author: "Practical Arithmetic"; 
" Essentials of Arithmetic." 

This selection of 90 stereographs with 101 references is de- 
signed to give the student of Domestic Science and Domestic 
Art a broad view of the close relationship existing between the 
home and the great world of industry. (See page 358.) 

30. Food and Cookery 
By Edna N. White, B.S. 

Head of Dept. of Home Economics and Supervisor of Home Economics Extension 
Dept. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 

Assisted by Lelia McGuire, B.S., M.S. 

Assistant Professor of Home Economics, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 



xl EDITORIAL BOARD 

108 stereographs and slides with 111 references, relating to 
foods, their values and preparation for use. This classifica- 
tion ably presents the necessity for intelligent use and conser- 
vation of foodstuffs. (See page 362.) 

31. Textiles and Clothing 
By Anna M. Cooley, B.S. 

Associate Professor of Household Arts Education, Teachers College, Columbia 
University. Author: "Domestic Art in Woman's Education." Joint Author: 
"Food and Health"; "Clothing and Health"; "The Home and the Family"; 
"Shelter and Clothing"; "Foods and Household Management"; "Occupations 
for Little Fingers." 

Assisted by Edith P. Chace, B.S., M.A. 

Head of Department of Home Economics, State College, Pennsylvania. 

191 stereographs with 239 references showing the origin and 
manufacture of materials, the uses of the various textiles, in- 
dustrial occupations connected with their production and the 
costumes of various countries both ancient and modern. (See 
page 374.) 

32. Household Administration 
By Grace Schermerhorn, B.S. 

Director of Cooking in the New York City Public Schools. Formerly 

Assistant Professor of Home Economics, University of Idaho; Director of 

Practice Teaching in Home Economics, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 

This classification of 53 stereographs and slides with 60 ref- 
erences aims to tie together the work done in Foods, Clothing 
and Shelter, dealing with the subject from the point of view 
of the home maker. (See page 383.) 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

INTRODUCTION 

By Charles A. Prosser, Ph.D. 

Director Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minn. Author: " New 
Harmony Movement"; "The Organization and Administration of Vocational Edu- 
cation"; "The Meaning of Vocational Education," etc. General Editor "Voca- 
tional Educational Series." National Director of Federal Commission on Voca- 
tional Education. 

33. Industrial Design — Including Architecture 
By Raymond P. Ensign 

Instructor in Design, Supervisor of Design Classes, Cleveland School of Art, 

Cleveland, Ohio. 



EDITORIAL BOARD xli 

These 473 stereographs and slides with 1167 references 
thereto make a classification which brings a wealth of illus- 
trative material for Manual Training classes in Design. It 
shows the advantage taken of Natural Forces, Mechanical 
Powers and Construction, while the second part gives the His- 
tory of Architecture and Architectural Design and Construc- 
tion adapted to uses of every kind. (See page 388.) 

34. Wood 
By George M. Brace, M.A. 

Director Manual Training High School, St. Paul, Minn. 

147 stereographs and slides with 190 references which illus- 
trate the place which wood occupies in our life. Its growth, 
cutting, manufacture and uses form the subject matter of the 
classification. (See page 420.) 

35. Metals — Sources and Uses 
By Harry S. Bitting 

President Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School, Pa. 

Ill stereographs and slides with 120 references selected to 
show the sources, preparation, manufacture and uses of our 
more important metals. (See page 425.) 

36. Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile 
By Charles M. Spofford, S.B. 

Hayward Professor of Civil Engineering in Charge of the Department of Civil 
and Sanitary Engineering of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 
Harvard University. Author: "The Theory of Structures." Member, Fay, 
Spofford and Thorndike, Consulting Engineers, Boston, Mass. 

117 stereographs and slides with 137 references make a 
classification of interest to the pupil, showing the sources and 
processes of obtaining and preparing these four great build- 
ing materials and their uses in modern constructive works. 
(See page 432.) 

37. LocaiL Industries 

By Clifford B. Connelley, Sc.D. 

Commissioner of Labor and Industry for the State of Pennsylvania. Formerly 
Dean School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute of Technology, 
Pittsburgh, Pa. Labor Commissioner, Pennsylvania. 



xlii EDITORIAL BOARD 

122 stereographs with 145 references selected to show the 
children the industrial life that goes on about them. The 
views brought together in this classification will give accurate 
ideas of the industrial activities of the communities in which 
they live and make personal adjustment to industry easier and 
better. (See page 439.) 

38. Hygiene — Health Habits 
By Michael Vincent O'Shea, B.L. 

Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin. Author: " Education as 
Adjustment"; "Dynamic Factors in Education"; "Linguistic Development and 
Education"; "Social Development and Education"; "Every Day Problems in 
Teaching." Editor-in-chief, " The World Book." 

The 72 stereographs and slides with 188 references in this 
classification are made the basis for stimulating suggestions as 
to health habits with regard to outdoor life, work, food and 
drink, hearing, breathing, air and light, fatigue and cleanliness 
(See page 448.) 

FINE ARTS 
INTRODUCTION 

By C. Valentine Kirby 

Director of Art Education, Department of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania. 

39. Drawing — Study of Stereographs and Slides to 

Show Elements of Art 

By Harry W. Jacobs 

Director Art Instruction, Public Schools, Buffalo, N. Y. 

216 stereographs and slides with 283 references are em- 
bodied in this classification to give a practical view point on 
the subject of perspective and drawing in general. Such sub- 
heads as Parallel Perspective, Angular Perspective, Poster 
Drawing, Pencil, Pen or Charcoal Sketches from Photographs 
to Develop Technique, and Nature show the range of subjects 
illustrated. (See page 455.) 

40. House Design and Decoration ; Costume Design 
By Mary J. Quinn 

Formerly Supervisor of Design, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. Author: 
" Planning and Furnishing the Home." 

Art in the home brings art instruction to a practical applica- 



EDITORIAL BOARD xliii 

tion. Houses and furnishings should be studied and children 
should be taught to judge what is best in a given circumstance. 
Then, too, the clothes of the people reveal their civilization. 
They express the manners, the habits of living, the workman- 
ship, the art of the people. The classification presents 258 
stereographs with 387 references. (See page 462.) 

41. Photography 
By C. E. K. Mees, D.Sc. 

Director Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N. Y. 

223 stereographs and slides with 271 references which fur- 
nish instruction as to composition, perspective, lighting, choice 
of subject and of view and illustrates thoroughly each point ex- 
plained. This classification is a splendid introduction to the 
photographer's art. (See page 487.) 

FOR THE LITTLE FOLKS 

INTRODUCTION 

By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. 

Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. 

42. Children of the World, Including Home Life 
By G. A. Mirick, A.M. 

Lecturer on Elementary Education, Harvard. Formerly Assistant Commissioner 
of Education, Supervising Elementary Schools, State of New Jersey. Author: 
" Home Life Around the World "; "A Grammar for Elementary Schools." Joint 
Author Kendall and Mirick Series "How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects"; 
" How to Teach Special Subjects." 

A classification of 199 stereographs and slides with 397 ref- 
erences selected from the point of view of the interests and 
mental capacities of the children who are to use them. Three 
distinct groupings are indicated so that, regardless of the 
method of approaching the child favored by the particular 
school, the material will lend itself readily to the plan used. 
(See page 503.) 

43. Plants and Animals 
By Anna Botsford Comstock 

Professor of Nature Study, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Editor Nature 



xliv EDITORIAL BOARD 

Study Keview. Author: " Handbook of Nature Study"; "The Pet Book"; 
" Ways of the Six-footed." Joint Author: " ITow to Know the Butterflies." 

This classification of 47 stereographs and slides brings to 
the little people a wealth of material to encourage observation, 
reflection, appreciation and expression. The views are se- 
lected to appeal constantly to the little child's small fund of ex- 
perience for the purpose of comparison or relating what is 
known. (See page 517.) 

44. Reading 
By Charles Madison Curry, A.M. 

Chairman of the Educational Survey Commission, Professor of Literature in the 
Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Author: " Literary 
p Readings." Joint Author: Holton-Curry Readers. 

Most of the poems and stories used in the readers of the 
lower grades as .well as the best supplementary readers are 
illustrated in this classification of 484 stereographs with 721 
references. (See page 527.) 

45. Some Things We Eat: Some Things We Wear 
By William M. Gregory 

Curator of Education Museum, Cleveland, Ohio. 

It is 'the aim of this classification of 129 stereographs and 
slides with 132 references to make real and vivid the elemen- 
tary ideas of life; to help children to realize the actual condi- 
tions under which we live and how dependent we are upon 
those people who supply our many needs. (See page 551.) 

46. Home Geography 
By R. H. Whitbeck, A.B. 

1'rofessor of Geography, University of Wisconsin. Editor Journal of Geography. 

This classification of 297 stereographs and slides with 592 
references has for its purpose the building up of fundamental 
concepts by directing observation to the home region. It 
shows the purpose of the home, the need for home industries 
for supplying our wants, how materials for clothing are ob- 



EDITORIAL BOARD xlv 

tained and an understanding of simple industries, of trade, of 
travel and of transportation. (See page 562.) 

47. Travelogue and Lecture Suggestions 
By Russell H. Conwell, D.D., LL.D. 

Lecturer. President of Temple University, Philadelphia. 

Oftentimes there is need of a definite listing of lantern slides 
for a review of regional geography, or other school subject, or 
when it is desired to use the slides as program material for 
community meetings to link up the home and the school. This 
classification of 587 slides with 1489 references will prove very 
helpful for such use. (See page 574.) 



GEOGRAPHY 

INTRODUCTION 
By Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. 

Controller and Professor of Geography, Teacher's College, Columbia University. 

Geography is " the study of the earth and its products, of 
man and his industries and of their influence upon each other." 
For most school children the study of geography is confined to 
the early years of school life. It comes at a time when children 
have had but little first hand contact with the world, its people 
and their industries and before travel has made them familiar 
with distant places and people or with the products of the earth 
and the industries growing out of their preparation for use. 
With the mind of the child open and receptive the intense real- 
ity of the stereoscopic presentation insures that the first ideas 
and concepts formed will be accurate, vivid and permanent. 

Failing direct contact with the world that lies beyond a 
familiar horizon children for the most part learn of it through 
the medium of the spoken word, the printed page, or its 
pictured representation. For this reason works on geography 
and travel are usually well illustrated and many of the most 
modern textbooks in geography prepared for the use of chil- 
dren devote a third or more of their space to maps, pictures 
and other illustrations. 

No other subject in the elementary school lends itself so 
readily to the use of illustrative material or requires more of 
it, and the textbook in geography, with its numerous maps and 
its hundreds of pictures is always the most attractive of school 
books. 

Not only do teachers make constant use of the pictures in the 
textbook itself, but they frequently find too few to meet their 
requirements. The result is that most teachers of geography 
are constantly collecting from every possible source pictures 
valuable for study or for class-room use during a lesson period. 
Collections of this sort are valuable in proportion as they show 

x 



2 GEOGRAPHY — INTRODUCTION 

clearly and accurately the features or process to be taught, and 
to the degree that some system of classification and cross refer- 
ence makes each picture available for instant use in connection 
with any topic where its use might be helpful. 

The pictures in the Keystone collection have been carefully 
chosen because of their teaching quality and because they are 
susceptible of clear and simple explanation. They are photo- 
graphs and possess the incomparable advantage of the stereo- 
scopic quality. Upon this latter advantage it is. not necessary 
to dwell beyond emphasizing the fact that in no other kind of 
picture is there the clearness of perspective — the third dimen- 
sion — that is found in views of this sort. 

The moving picture fails exactly as does the flat photograph 
to show this perspective quality and is for that very reason often 
quite misleading in the impression that it gives. Farther the 
moving picture can not be studied. Even the least inflammable 
of films can be " held " for only a brief time without being 
damaged or destroyed. It flickers on and off the screen with 
no explanation at all or with the briefest of running comment. 
The opportunity for a quiet and careful study of the picture un- 
til its full meaning is understood is altogether lacking. To 
other disadvantages connected with the use of moving pictures 
must be added the cost of equipment and the difficulties and 
dangers connected with showing them. 

To a remarkable degree the collection of Keystone views 
meets the needs of teacher and children. They have been care- 
fully selected for this particular use. They have been grouped 
and indexed by experts. They may be studied at any time, as 
often and for as long a time as necessary. 

The nine classifications immediately following treat the sub- 
ject of Geography from various view points and with consider- 
able fullness. The teacher of the lower grades should note 
especially the classifications " Some Things We Eat ; Some 
Things We Wear" page 551 and "Home Geography" page 
562, also the classifications covering the geographic supplemen- 
tary reading pages 533 and 535. 



1. GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 
AND TITLE LIST 

By DOUGLAS C. RIDGLEY, A.B. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, 

NORMAL, ILL. 

This list of 600 views is a complete catalog of the " 600 Set " 
with titles given in full. In classifications following this Geo- 
graphical Classification, titles are somewhat abbreviated, or en- 
tirely changed so that the thought of the Editor of any chapter 
may be more clearly presented. In every case, however, the 
stereograph or lantern slide may be quickly identified by the 
serial number which is always given. If the full title and geo- 
graphical location is desired, turn to the corresponding number 
in this list in which the views are numbered consecutively from 
1 to 600. 

The numbers first given are the serial numbers of the " 600 
Set," and run from 1 to 600 inclusive. These numbers are fol- 
lowed by negative numbers. Such a number serves as an ab- 
solute means of identification. The negative number is fol- 
lowed by the title of the scene. In all lists following this one 
the negative number is omitted. 

Teachers and pupils will be well repaid by making frequent 
and careful examination of this Geographical Classification in 
all its main divisions and sub-divisions. A careful study of the 
exact title and geographical location of the individual scenes 
will yield excellent results. The serial numbers may be en- 
tered on outline maps of the United States and of each con- 
tinent, in their appropriate places. Maps in the textbook in 
geography, in atlases, and wall maps, can be used to advantage 
in locating the scenes accurately. The order of the countries 
is that usually followed by modern textbooks in geography. 

An accurate and comprehensive knowledge of the scenes in 
this Geographical Classification is indispensable to the teacher 
who expects to make the best use of the numerous lists follow- 

3 



4 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

ing this one. Such knowledge is to be obtained by using spare 
moments occasionally in the examination of the stereographs 
in regular order, learning the details of the scene, its exact 
title, and by reading the descriptive matter on the backs of the 
stereographs. Such examination and study will prove a real 
delight to the instructor. By knowing well the scenes of the 
list, and the geographical setting of each, the teacher can de- 
termine instantly the value of any division of the Classification 
in relation to the class work which pupils may be pursuing 
He is prepared also to select quickly any scene or group ol 
scenes that may bear on any topic that may come incidentally 
in school work. The topical index at the back of the Teachers' 
Manual will be found convenient and helpful in linking up these 
excellent illustrations with the teaching program. 

Note especially the careful distribution of these superb 
stereographs and lantern slides over the entire geographic 
range. Regardless of the region studied, you will usually 
find some scene in this " 600 Set " that bears directly on the 
work in hand. This is a distinct achievement which only the 
remarkable collection of negatives possessed by the Keystone 
View Company makes possible. Every state in the United 
States is represented. Surely, this is an important considera- 
tion to the instructor who would present our great nation in 
a comprehensive way. The other countries of the world are 
visualized with a completeness that is as pleasing as it is vital 
to the best instruction. 

NORTH AMERICA 

303 stereographs or slides 

UNITED STATES AND POSSESSIONS 

(Except Asiatic Possessions) 

261 stereographs or slides 

New England States 
24 stereographs or slides 

MAINE — 2 stereographs or slides 

1 (12260) Logs from the forest delivered at the stream, Aroostook 

Co., Me. 

2 (14227) Flashlight of wild moose in a Maine forest. 



NEW ENGLAND STATES 



NEW HAMPSHIRE — i stereograph or slide 

3 (13709) Quarrying granite — drilling, preparatory to splitting, 

Concord, N. H. 

VERMONT — 2 stereographs or slides 

4 (13701) Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt— largest quarry opening in 

the world. 

5 (13706) Chiseling marble — architectural department, Vermont 

Marble Company, Proctor, Vt. 

MASSACHUSETTS — 15 stereographs or slides 

6 (6172) Old North Church, Boston, Mass. 

7 (6180) Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. 

8 (11687) Old State House from Court Street, Boston, Mass. 

9 (VI 1686) Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. 

10 (11680) Lexington Common, Lexington, Mass. 

11 (22188) Skilled workmen cutting leather for high quality shoes, 

Mass. 

12 (22189) Lasting machine shaping shoes in a Massachusetts shoe 

factory. 

13 (20221) Drying codfish in the sun — Gloucester and harbor in the 

distance, Mass. 

14 (22080) Spinning cotton yarn in the great textile mills, Lawrence, 

Mass. 

15 (22082) Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, 

Lawrence, Mass. 

16 (22083) General view in large printing room of cotton mills, Law- 

rence, Mass. 

17 (22125) Sorting wool after cleaning and washing, Lawrence, Mass. 

18 (22127) Doubling frame in a large woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. 

19 (22068) Cut rags after removing from washing drum — paper 

mills, Holyoke, Mass. 

20 (22070) Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 

RHODE ISLAND — 1 stereograph or slide 

21 (16773) Skilled workers manufacturing jewelry, Providence, R. I. 

CONNECTICUT — 3 stereographs or slides 

22 (20301) Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins — silk industry, 

So. Manchester, Conn. 

23 (20312) First drawing or straightening of fibers — silk industry, 

So. Manchester, Conn. 

24 (20316) Spinning — silk industry, So. Manchester, Conn. 

Middle Atlantic States 
60 stereographs or slides 
NEW YORK — 26 stereographs or slides 

25 (16774) Looking down on New York's Skyscrapers from Wool- 

worth Tower (S. W.) over Battery to Statue of Liberty 
and Harbor. 



GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 



26 (14244) 


27 
28 


(10558) 
(16760) 


29 (1009) 

30 (23155) 


31 


(16751) 


32 


(16752) 


33 

34 


(18203) 
(22165) 


35 


(22164) 


36 

37 


(6299) 
(13511) 


38 
39 
40 
41 


(12456) 
(13508) 
(22260) 
(22190) 


42 


(22019) 


43 


(16753) 


44 

45 


(16754) 
(16756) 


46 
47 
48 
49 
50 


(16750) 

(6708) 

(6835) 

(149) 

(171) 




NEW J 


51 


(16730) 


52 (16762) 


53 (22110) 



Ferry slips and water front of New York City, from the 

Brooklyn side. 
The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 
Old and New City Halls and World Building from City 

Hall Park, New York City. 
Wall Street, the financial center, New York. 
Looking north on Broadway, past Trinity Church, New 

York City. 
Many forms of transportation required in large centers 

of population, New York City. 
The Gateway of America — immigrants landing from 

barge at Ellis Island, N. Y. 
Domestic Art — dining room and living room. 
Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from drying 

kiln, N. Y. 
Filling and sewing bags of .granulated sugar, New York 

City. 
The cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. 
Washington's Headquarters at Newburgh on the Hudson, 

N. Y. 
A charming landscape, Hudson River Valley, N. Y. 
Looking up the Hudson River from West Point, N. Y. 
Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, N. Y. 
General view, sewing room — large shoe factory, Syra- 
cuse, N. Y. 
Solar method of evaporating salt brine — collecting, 

draining and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 
A busy path of commerce in central New York — four 
track railway, electric road at right, Erie canal at ex- 
treme left. 
Summer spraying in apple orchard, Hilton, N. Y. 
Washing 1,000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, Cohocton, 

N. Y. 
Automatic machine for filling and capping bottles of milk. 
Picking and loading cantaloupes near Buffalo, N. Y. 
Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. 
American Falls, summer view, Niagara Falls, N. Y. 
The " Beauteous Queen of Cataracts " — American Falls, 

winter view, Niagara Falls, N. Y. 

ERSEY — io stereographs or slides 
Picturesque Palisades of the Hudson River, looking north, 

New Jersey. 
The Vaterland and other German ships seized by the U. 

S. when war was declared, Hoboken, N. J. 
Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth in extensive silk 
mills at Paterson, N. J. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 7 

54 (22111) Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 

55 (22112) Machine weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Pat- 

erson, N. J. 

56 (16717) 1500 hens (White Leghorn) in laying house — Corning 

Egg Farm, Bound Brook, New Jersey. 

57 (16749) Milking scene in modern dairy, Plainsboro, New Jersey. 

58 (22096) Firing tableware in the noted pottery center, Trenton, 

N.J. 

59 (22097) Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 

60 (1007) In the surf, Atlantic City, N. J. 



PENNSYLVANIA — ^ stereographs or slides 

61 (6342) Confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers 

forming the Ohio River, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

62 (6322) Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

63 (6523) Modern pig iron machine at rest, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

64 (6531) Emptying cooled pig iron from molds into car, pig iron 

machine, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

65 (6414) Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

66 (6420) Steel ingot on the "table" of the "blooming" mill, Steel 

Works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

67 (6421) Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into 

lengths by buzz saw, Steel Works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

68 (6365) General view of ovens — loading coke into the cars, 

Connellsville, Pa. 

69 (20058) Filling shell with nitro-glycerine, preparatory to shooting 

the well — oil field in Pennsylvania. 

70 (20352) Shooting well with eighty cjuarts of nitro-glycerine — oil 

field, Pennsylvania. 

71 (16729) Wagon used to haul ammunition to Admiral Perry on 

Lake Erie (1813) — "prairie schooner" type — Craw- 
ford County, Pa. 

72 (7965) A woodcock on nest. 

73 (195) Culp's Hill, Gettysburg, Pa. 

74 (20048) Stripping coal at Hazleton, Pa. 

75 (20049) Miners going into the slope, Hazleton, Pa. 

76 (7052) Miner drilling and laborer loading "black diamonds" in 

the rough, anthracite mining, Scranton, Pa. 

77 (7057) Loading cage with car of coal at bottom of shaft, Scran- 

ton, Pa. 

78 (7064) Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 

79 (13204) Shipping coal — coal breaker in background, Ashley, Pa. 

80 (9648) The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

81 (22128) Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for 

weaving, Philadelphia, Pa. 

82 (7090) General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive 

Works, Philadelphia, Pa. 



8 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

83 (16761) School gardens as a practical educational method — 

showing Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls, Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

84 (22291) Coining presses, Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. 

South Atlantic States 

27 stereographs or slides 
DELAWARE — I stereograph or slide 

85 (6952) Gathering peaches, Delaware. 

MARYLAND — / stereograph or slide 

86 (6881) "Shucking" oysters, oyster house, Baltimore, Md. 

DIST. OF COLUMBIA — p stereographs or slides 

87 (224) The Capitol, Washington, D. C. 

88 (16770) Pres. Woodrow Wilson, reading message to joint session 
t of House and Senate, Congressional Chamber, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

89 (V16763) Supreme Court Room, in the Capitol, Washington, D. C. 

90 (895) From War, State and Navy Building — White House, 

Treasury, Pennsylvania Ave. and the Capitol, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

91 (8025) The White House, Washington, D. C. 

92 (V16768) The Cabinet Room, Executive Annex to the White 

House, Washington, D. C. 

93 (16769) From Washington Monument east to Capitol over Agri- 

cultural Dept. grounds, Washington, D. C. 

94 (22303) Numbering, seal printing and separating paper money, 

Bureau of Printing and Engraving, Washington, D. C. 

95 (8046) Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. 

VIRGINIA — 5 stereographs or slides 

96 (8038) Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. 

97 (20197) A mountain of oyster shells to be placed as bedding for 

young oysters, Hampton, Va. 

98 (14196) Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith — en- 

acted by the survivors of the Pamunkey Indian Tribe 
at the Jamestown Exposition — Opening Day, April 26, 
1907. 

99 (14219) Some operations of the Life Saving Corps — Jamestown 

Exposition. 

100 (14158) Great warships in Hampton Roads, Va. 

WEST VIRGINIA — J stereograph or slide 

101 (184) Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 
NORTH CAROLINA — 2 stereographs or slides 

102 (6309) Overlooking the Blue Ridge Mountains from Mt. Tox- 

away, N. C. 

103 (6208) Burning charcoal, mountains in western North Carolina. 



SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 9 

SOUTH CAROLINA — 2 stereographs or slides 

104 (20010) Flooding the rice fields, South Carolina. 

105 (13751) Hoeing rice, South Carolina. 

GEORGIA — 2 stereographs or slides 

106 (13722) Rosin on the docks, Savannah, Ga. 

107 (13747) A turpentine farm — dippers and chippers at work, Sa- 

vannah, Ga. 

FLORIDA — 4 stereographs or slides 

108 (13740) Harvesting Indian River pineapples, Florida. 

109 (314) Old Slave Market, St. Augustine, Fla. 

110 (13749) Alligator Joe's battle with a wounded 'gator, Palm 

Beach, Fla. 

111 (9175) Sponge market, Key West Harbor, Fla. 

South Central States 

16 stereographs or slides 
KENTUCKY — 2 stereographs or slides 

112 (20092) Tobacco field in Kentucky. 

113 (V16741) Cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born, Hodgens- 

ville, Ky. 

TENNESSEE — 2 stereographs or slides 

114 (23082) Chattanooga and Tennessee River Valley seen from 

Lookout Mountain, Tenn. 

115 (16738) Mining phosphate and loading cars near Columbia, Tenn. 

ALABAMA — / stereograph or slide 

116 (16737) Steel furnace in Alabama's great iron center, Birming- 

ham, Ala. 

MISSISSIPPI — / stereograph or slide 

117 (9506) Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 
ARKANSAS — 1 stereograph or slide 

118 (16771) Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Arkansas. 

LOUISIANA — 2 stereographs or slides 
119(12479) Cotton! Cotton! Cotton! Levee, New Orleans, La. 

120 (16757) In the Mississippi Delta at head of passes, north from 

Pilot's Tower to Cubit's Gap, La. 

OKLAHOMA — / stereograph or slide 

121 (16727) A metropolitan view — looking north from the Colcord 

Bldg., over the City of Oklahoma, Okla. 

TEXAS- — 6 stereographs or slides 

122 (20054) Spindle Top — an important oil region near Beaumont, 

Texas. 



10 



GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 



123 (20354) Crude oil stills and can factory, Port Arthur, Texas. 

124 (9508) Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin, Greenville, Texas. 

125 (20109) Cotton gin, Greenville, Texas. 

126 (16579) General view of the Alamo Plaza, San Antonio, Texas. 

127 (13756) "Making a drive" — on the Paloduro Ranch, Paloduro, 

Texas. 

North Central States 
59 stereographs or slides 
OHIO — 8 stereographs or slides 

128 (6697) A comprehensive view of unloaders at work on the ore 

docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 

129 (6705) A trainload of coal for Lake Superior consumption, Con- 

neaut, Ohio. 

130 (13665) Tapping a sugar-maple tree, Portage County, Ohio. 

131 (22054) Many forms of crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. 

132 (22058) Building up an automobile tire in rubber plant, Akron, 

Ohio. 

133 (22060) An interesting scene in the manufacture of rubber boots 

and shoes, Akron, Ohio. 

134 (22001) Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, 

Rossford, Ohio. 

135 (22009) Inspecting plate glass after polishing, Rossford, Ohio. 

INDIANA — 3 stereographs or slides 

136 (16712) Modern methods of corn harvesting — cutter and binder 

at work on an Indiana farm. 

137 (16755) "When the frost is on the pun'kin and the fodder's in 

the shock "• — ■ Indiana. 

138 (21576) A champion team of Percheron draft horses at work on 

an Indiana stock farm. 

ILLINOIS — io stereographs or slides 

139 (2337) In the heart of the great shopping center, State Street, 

Chicago. 

140 (20250) The world's greatest live stock market, Union Stock 

Yards, Chicago, 111. 

141 (20252) The last process in dressing beef — washing with boiling 

water, Chicago, 111. 

142 (20256) Splitting backbones and final inspection of hogs before 

placing them in the refrigerator rooms, Chicago, 111. 

143 (20257) Trimming and skinning hams before pickling, in prepara- 

tion for the market, Chicago, 111. 

144 (20259) Making link sausages with the aid of machines which 

stuff ten feet per second, Chicago, 111. 

145 (18341) Shearing sheep with power driven shears, Kirkland, 111. 

146 (18335) Marshall Joffre, Viviani, Chocheprat and Fabry — French 

War Commission (1917) — with Gov. Lowden and State 
officials at Tomb of Lincoln, Springfield, 111 



NORTH CENTRAL STATES 



11 



147 (6399) Loading oats in the field, Illinois. 

148 (20118) Building dikes to protect the city from the flood, East St. 

Louis, 111. 

MICHIGAN — io stereographs or slides 

149 (16716) Harvesting celery blanched by boards in Michigan's 

famous celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich. 

150 (22141) Assembling Room — chassis ready for engines — Cadillac 

Automobile Plant, Detroit, Mich. 

151 (22142) Experts testing engines in the Cadillac Automobile Plant, 

Detroit, Mich. 

152 (22143) Employees leaving the Ford Motor Company Factory, 

Detroit, Mich. 

153 (22014) Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair, Mich. 

154 (V16731) Greatest canal traffic in the world — busy scene in the 

ship canal, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 

155 (22037) A mile underground — loading and handling cars with 

copper ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 

156 (22044) Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla 

Mills, Lake Linden, Mich. 

157 (22049) Loading MOO tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. 

158 (11941) "Nursed the little Hiawatha, rocked him in his linden 

cradle." 

WISCONSIN — 3 stereographs or slides 

159 (16709) Group of modern dairy barns and herd of Holstein 

cattle, Lake Mills, Wis. 

160 (16711) Harvesting and loading silage corn in Wisconsin's famous 

dairy region. 

161 (16732) Reclaiming swamp land — digging ditch with tractor and 

laying drain tile, Wis. 

MINNESOTA — 8 stereographs or slides 

162 (20033) A load of logs at the Kettle River Landing, Minnesota 

Pineries. 

163 (6965) Steam shovel at work, showing how track is laid, Burt 

Mine, Mesabi Range. Minn. 

164 (6978) Looking between ore docks No. 2 and No. 3, Two Har- 

bors, Minn. 

165 (16708) Holstein cattle and attractive dairy barns and silos, near 

Moorhead, Minn. 

166 (16725) Potato digging machines at work in the famous potato 

region of the Red River Valley, Moorhead, Minn. 

167 (16703) Scene in the busy northern metropolis, Nicollet Ave., 

Minneapolis, Minn. 

168 (11942) "Brought forth food and set before them, brought them 

water from the brooklet." 

169 (11943) "From the wigwam he departed, leading with him 

Laughing Water." 



12 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

IOWA — 4 stereographs or slides 

170 (16700) General view of the great power dam and locks in the 

Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa. 

171 (16701) Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied with power 

from the Great Dam at Keokuk, Iowa. 

172 (16715) Hogs in rape pasture, Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Ames, Iowa. 

173 (16719) Choice Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep in pas- 

ture at Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 

MISSOURI — 3 stereographs or slides 

174 (9518) The magnificent Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 

175 (16714) Busy scene in the Ozark apple region of Missouri — 

picking, sorting and packing in barrels. 

176 (16704) Shaft house, smelter and tailing pile, zinc and lead mines, 

Joplin, Mo. 

NORTH DAKOTA — i stereograph or slide 

177 (16740) Threshing wheat in the Red River Valley, North Dakota. 

SOUTH DAKOTA — 2 stereographs or slides 

178 (16733) Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor, South Dakota. 

179 (16734) Making a good seed bed. Tractor drawing double disc 

and 3 section tooth harrows, South Dakota. 
NEBRASKA — 3 stereographs or slides 

180 (16735) Manure spreader followed by tractor plowing sod near 

Omaha, Neb. 

181 (16748) Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader on the farm of Wil- 

liam Jennings Bryan, near Lincoln, Neb. 

182 (16718) Mounted Sioux Indians in "full feather" leaving camp. 

Nebraska. 

KANSAS -4 stereographs or slides 

183 (16736) Thrifty and contented hogs (Poland China) in rich al- 

falfa pasture, Effingham, Kansas. 

184 (20201) Cornfield, Kansas. 

185 (16710) Splendid Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens, show- 

ing open air feeding shed, Manhattan, Kansas. 

186 (20075) Thrown ! Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, 

Kansas. 

Plateau States 

28 stereographs or slides 
MONTANA — 3 stereographs or slides 

187 (13638) Copper smelters and mine, Butte, Mont. — the richest 

mining district in the world. 

188 (13641) Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, banks of the Yellow 

stone, Montana. 



PLATEAU STATES 



13 



189 (12269) Lordly monarch of western wilds — actual snapshot of 

wild elk, Montana. 

IDAHO — / stereograph or slide 

190 (6157) Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 
WYOMING — 7 stereographs or slides 

191 (13579) After winter's first visit — gap of the Golden Gate, Yel- 

lowstone National Park, Wyoming. 

192 (13588) Angel Terrace, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 

193 (13589) Commotion in the Devil's Ink Pot. A moment of erup- 

tion, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 

194 (13584) "Old Faithful," queen of geysers, Yellowstone National 

Park, Wyoming. 

195 (13581) Rocky Mountain Divide, Yellowstone National Park. 

196 (13594) A beaver dam, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 

197 (13577) Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone National Park. 

COLORADO — 8 stereographs or slides 

198 (20213) Cultivating a field of beets, near Greeley, Colorado. 
Harvesting barley with combined harvester and thresh- 
ing machine, drawn by tractor near Ft. Collins, Col- 
orado. 

Phoebe's Arch, Palmer Lake, Colorado. 
Pike's Peak from the Garden of the Gods, Colorado. 
In the heart of the Box Canyon, Colorado. 
Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. 
Ute Indian and family, Colorado. 
"Dismantled towers and turrets broken!" — cliff dwell- 
ers' palace in the Mesa Verde, Colorada. 

ARIZONA — 5 stereographs or slides 

206 (13516) The famous log bridge spanning a chasm 50 ft. wide, 

Petrified Forest, Arizona. 

207 (13718) Cultivating field of Egyptian long staple cotton with rid- 

ing disc cultivator in Salt River Valley, near Phcenix. 

208 (13660) On the Bright Angel Trail, Grand Canyon of the Col- 

orado, Arizona. 

209 (13724) The effects of irrigation on Arizona desert, giant cactus 

in foreground, Salt River Valley, Arizona. 

210 (16742) Reclaiming vast areas by irrigation — the great Roosevelt 

Dam near Phoenix, Ariz. 

NEW MEXICO — I stereograph or slide 

211 (13720) As in ancient days, pueblo of the Taos Indians, Taos, 

New Mexico. 

UTAH — 2 stereographs or slides 

212 (2454) Salt Lake City, Utah. 

213 (2459) Ogden and Wasatch Mountains, Utah. 



199 


(13719) 


200 


(2403) 


201 


(13717) 


202 


(8008) 


203 


(8080) 


204 


(8082) 


205 


(V8014) 



14 



GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 



NEVADA — i stereograph or slide 

214 (16759) A silver mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. 

Pacific States 

28 stereographs or slides 

WASHINGTON — 6 stereographs or slides 

215 (20031) Great chained log rafts, containing millions of feet of 

lumber, on the Columbia River, Wash. 

216 (13618) Port Blakely Mills — largest in the world, near Seattle, 

Puget Sound, Wash. 

217 (20027) Shipping lumber, Washington. 

218 (V11623) Harvesting in the great West — combined reaper and 

thresher, Washington. 

219 (14135) Looking down a deep crevasse of Paradise Glacier, sum- 

mit of Mt. Rainier in the distance — Rainier National 
Park, Wash. 

220 (13721) Second Avenue from Yester Way, Seattle, Wash. 

OREGON — 7 stereographs or slides 



221 (13635) 

222 (14103) 



223 (6228) 

224 (13567) 

225 (13796) 

226 (13624) 

227 (13625) 



A splendid view of Mt. Hood, Ore. 

Crater Lake, Oregon. When a volcano has been quiet 
for centuries the inside slopes become weathered 
enough to support life and the crater may be filled with 
water and become a lake. 

Line of sand dunes, Columbia River, Oregon. 

One of the great trees that grow in the rainy north- 
west — showing method of felling, Oregon. 

Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 

P'irst haul of the season — salmon industry, Columbia 
River, Ore. 

Butchering salmon — interior of a canning establishment, 
Astoria, Oregon. 



CALIFORNIA — 15 stereographs or slides 

228 (5022) The Sierras, from Glacier Rock, Yosemite Valley, Cal. 

229 (5006) The Wawona Tree, Mariposa Grove, Yosemite Valley, 

Cal. 

230 (16743) Market St., Twin Peaks in the distance, San Francisco, 

Cal. 

231 (13299) Remarkable earthquake fissure in the Sobrante Hills, near 

Berkeley, Cal. 

232 (16676) The great American bison that once roamed in countless 

thousands over our vast prairies, Cal. 

233 (20215) A combined steam harvester which reaps, threshes and 

sacks the wheat, Cal. 

234 (16744) Harvesting almonds, San Joaquin County, Cal. 

235 (16746) Luther Burbank's spineless cactus, Santa Rosa. Cal. 



OUTLYING POSSESSIONS 



15 



236 (16747) Tokay Grapes — in a California vineyards, Acompo, Cal. 

237 (13723) Irrigating endless avenues of orange trees, Redlands, 

Cal. 

238 (4300) Orange blossoms and fruit, Los Angeles, Cal. 

239 (13528) Just out — baby ostriches on the Cawston ostrich farm, 

California. 

240 (16745) Picking olives, Tulare Co., Cal. 

241 (13555) San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 

242 (16667) Submarines in the foreground and battle-ships and tor- 

pedo brats in the background, San Diego Bay, Cal. 

Outlying Possessions of the 
United States 

(Except the Philippines and Guam) 

19 stereographs or slides 

ALASKA — 4 stereographs or slides 

243 (9195) Preparing to climb " The Golden Stair " and Peterson's 

Trail, Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. 

244 (11518) Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 

245 (9374) Placer mining near the Yukon River, Alaska. 

246 (11530) Gold miners and dog team north of the Arctic Circle, 

Alaska. 

PANAMA, C. Z. — ■ 10 stereographs or slides 

247 (20857) Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting — palm tree 

with palm nuts. Panama. 

248 (20877) Looking down on the City and Bay of Panama, from 

Ancon Hill, Panama Canal Zone. 

249 (13320) Dwellings erected for employees of old French Canal 

Company, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. 

250 (20889) Site of the Gatun Lock, looking south from the lowest 

lock towards Lake Gatun — Panama Canal Route. 

251 (21740) Excavations measuring 500 ft. deep in Gaillard Cut, 

Panama Canal. 

252 (21783) North over Gatun Locks and sea level entrance to Panama 

Canal, Atlantic Ocean in the distance. 

253 (21784) South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, Emergency Dam 

in position — a busy scene on the Panama Canal. 

254 (21781) U. S. S. Missouri — the first battleship to pass from the 

Atlantic to the Pacific through the Panama Canal. 

255 (21786) Hospital grounds and Ancon Hill from Hotel Tivoli, 

Panama. 

256 (21787) At the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal — showing 

fortified islands, wireless tower and breakwater. 

PORTO RICO — - 2 stereographs or slides 

257 (10252) Overlooking the harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 

258 (10264) Cutting the sugar cane, Rio Pedro, Porto Rico. 



16 



GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 



HAWAII — 3 stereographs or slides 

259 (10154) Luxuriant vegetation in the Mauna Loa Valley, Hawaii. 

260 (10161) With the flag goes the public school — Royal School, 

Honolulu, Hawaii. 

261 (10156) Pretty hula girls, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

PHILIPPINES — See Asia. 
GUAM — See Asia. 



NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 
18 stereographs or slides 

CANADA — 16 stereographs or slides 

262 (13895) "In the Acadian Land, on the shores of the Basin of 

Minas." Nova Scotia, Canada. 

263 (13882) Indian basket weaving, Prince Edward Island, Canada. 

264 (13987) View from Dufferin Terrace, Quebec, Canada. 

265 (16061) Iroquois Indians who participated in tercentenary pag- 

eant (1908), Quebec, Can. 

266 (16037) Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal in a military 

parade at Quebec. 

267 (10625) The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 

268 (20927) Winding bobbins in linen mill — linen industry, Canada. 

269 (20932) Weaving the linen fabric — linen industry, Canada. 

270 (20941) Beets stored in sheds with V-shaped bins having canals 

underneath to carry them to washing drum. 

271 (20944) Beet pulp and juice flowing into large iron tanks, where 

it is subjected to diffusion by water. 

272 (20916) Scraping the hair from the hides roughly by machinery — 

tanning industry, Canada. 

273 (16316) In the thriving metropolis of Western Canada — Main St., 

Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. 

274 (13830) A treacherous crevasse in Victoria Glacier — Mt. Lefroy 

and Mt. Victoria in distance, Canadian Rockies, 
Canada. 

275 (13802) Among the wonderful ice peaks of the Illecillewaet 

Glacier. 

276 (13806) Mt. Sir Donald, the Matterhorn of the North American 

Alps. 

277 (13837) Western terminus of Canadian Pacific Transcontinental 

R. R., and Burrard Inlet, Vancouver, B. C, Can. 



NEWFOUNDLAND — 2 stereographs or slides 

278 (16320) Harbor of St. John's from the Dry Docks, Newfoundland. 

279 (16318) Eskimo dog team on trail, Hopedale, Labrador. 



SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF N. A. 17 

SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

24 stereographs or slides 
MEXICO — // stereographs or slides 

280 (10800) Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 

281 (10809) Home of the peon — the adobe hut, Mexico. 

282 (10803) City of Mexico, the ancient Tenochtitlan of the Aztecs. 

283 (10910) Soldiers' Monument and Castle of Chapultepec, City of 

Mexico. 

284 (10925) Pyramid of Sun, from Pyramid of the Moon, San Juan 

Teotihuacan. 

285 (10926) Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant used in 

making pulque, the native drink, Tacuba, Mexico. 

286 (10888) Carding room, cotton mills, Orizaba, Mexico. 

287 (16106) Rich Gold and Silver Mining Center, El Oro, State of 

Mexico, Mexico. 

288 (10865) The sacred shrine on Cholula Pyramid, and "Old Popo- 

catapetl," Cholula, Mexico. 

289 (16100) Henequen, the wealth of Yucatan, from which sisal hemp 

fibre is produced, Mexico. 

290 (17787) Mexican musicians and dancing girls in national costume. 

Central America 

4 stereographs or slides 
GUATEMALA — / stereograph or slide 

291 (12872) Escuintla and the twin volcanoes Fuego and Acatenango, 

Guatemala, C. A. 

SALVADOR — 1 stereograph or slide 

292 (12860) Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A. 

NICARAGUA — 1 stereograph or slide 

293 (12911) Lake Nicaragua, on Nicaragua canal route, controlled by 

the U. S., Nicaragua, C. A. 

COSTA RICA — 1 stereograph or slide 

294 (12804) Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C A. 

West Indies 

9 stereographs or slides 
CUBA — 5 stereographs or slides 

295 (20518) Havana Wharf, Cuba — unloading coffee from Porta 

Rico. 
• 296 (9078) General view of the wrecked battleshio Maine. 

297 (10236) Cutting tobacco grown in the shade of banana trees, 

Province of Havana, Cuba. 

298 (9072) Farming scene, Province of Havana, Cuba. 



18 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

299 (10237) Santiago and the harbor, Cuba. 

300 See Guadeloupe, below No. 302. 

JAMAICA — / stereograph or slide 

301 (9991) A cattle ranch in Jamaica, B. W. I. 

GUADELOUPE — 2 stereographs or slides 

302 (14439) Coffee pickers at work, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 
300 (14437) Mighty earthquake fissure, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 

DOMINICA — i stereograph or slide 

303 (14455) The eccentric growth of cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. 

SOUTH AMERICA 

38 stereographs or slides 
BRAZIL — 8 stereographs or slides 

304 (20838) Lower city and harbor, Sao Salvador (Bahia), Brazil. 

305 (21822) Avenida Rio Branco from Hotel Avenida on a holiday, 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

306 (21821) Children of illustrious Brazilian families in an American 

private school, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

307 (21851) Tropical view down the slope of Santa Theresa toward 

the harbor, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

308 (21847) Scene in Rua 15th of November, the principal street, 

Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

309 (21848) Municipal Theatre, one of the handsomest play houses 

in the world, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

310 (20817) Method of drying coffee, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

311 (20816) Carts loaded with coffee leaving the plantation, State 

of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

URUGUAY — 2 stereographs or slides 

312 (20829) Plaza Independencia showing " Portales," Montevideo, 

Uruguay. 

313 (20827) Great dredge by which the harbor is made navigable, 

Montevideo, Uruguay. 

ARGENTINA — 8 stereographs or slides 

314 (20824) Entrance to the harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 

315 (20840) The Government buildings from the balcony of (he 

Bourse. 

316 (21809) Four o'clock parade of society in Palermo, a suburb of 

Buenos Aires, Argentina. 

317 (20844) Argentina's famous cattle on range, La Plata, Argentina, 

So. Am. 

318 (21875) Majestic Iguazu Falls, Argentina. 



SOUTH AMERICA 



19 



319 (21818) Italian settler and family, vineyards in background, Men- 

doza, Argentina. 

320 (20850) Two typical means of transportation — the high cart and 

the gig — Alta Gracia, Argentina. 

321 (21817) Along the Mendoza River in the Andean Foothills, Ar- 

gentina. 

CHILE — 7 stereographs or slides 

322 (21861) Charming Inca Lake (Laguna del Inca) nestling in the 

Chilean Andes. 

323 (21860) Station from which the train climbs 5000 feet in a few 

miles to the summit, Juncal, Chile. 

324 (21843) Cathedral and Plaza, Chilean woman in native dress, 

Santiago, Chile. 

325 (22369) Nitrate for agriculture and for war being sacked by 

natives for shipment, Chile. « 

326 (21865) The harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 

327 (21836) Goods arriving at docks for shipment, Valparaiso, Chile. 

328 (21874) Indians on the Strait of Magellan near Punta Arenas, 

Chile. 

PERU — 6 stereographs or slides 

329 (21867) Across the Plaza in Arequipa to the famous volcano, 

Monte Misti, Peru. 

330 (21811) In the heart of the rugged Cordilleras, the Cofa Bridge 

on the Oroya Railway, Peru. 

331 (21871) Natives near wall of Incan Palace — most remarkable 

monument of ancient Peru, Cuzco. 

332 (21869) Tractor with cable drawing harrow and pulverizer to pre- 

pare soil for planting sugar cane, Lima, Peru. 

333 (21868) Replanting the sugar cane in a large hacienda near Lima, 

Peru. 

334 (21870) Refining silver in smelter at the famous mining center of 

Cerro de Pasco, Peru. 

BOLIVIA — I stereograph or slide 

335 (21866) Famous Copacabana Church near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia, 

llama in foreground. 

ECUADOR — i stereograph or slide 

336 (21872) Charming Spanish maiden on balcony, Guayaquil, 

Ecuador. 

COLOMBIA — i stereograph or slide 

337 (21873) Quaint scene in streets of Barranquilla, Colombia. 

VENEZUELA — 4 stereographs or slides 

338 (13314) La Guaira, Venezuela, showing fort bombarded by the 

British in 1902. 



20 



GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 



339 (13315) In the narrow streets of La Guaira, Venezuela — native 

method of distributing milk unadulterated. 

340 (13307) National University and Halls of Congress, Caracas, 

Venezuela. 

341 (13309) The city baker making his daily rounds, Caracas, Vene- 

zuela. 



• 



POLAR REGIONS 

(Except Alaska and Norway) 
5 stereographs or slides 
ARCTIC — 2 stereographs or slides 

342 (13325) The twin ships, Windward and Eric — Peary expedition 

in 1901 — at Nuerke, 800 miles from North Pole, 
Greenland. 

343 (V13331) Eskimo girls in clothing made from skins, in the frigid 

Arctic, Cape York, Greenland. 

(See also 246 Alaska and 413, 414 and 415 Norway) 

ANTARCTIC — J stereographs or slides 

344 (13326) Hauling snow for water supply — Belgica Antarctic ex- 



345 (13328) 



346 (13327) 



pedition. (1897-99.) 

Commander Adrien de Gerlache, leader of the Belgica 
Antarctic expedition (1897-99), on skis hunting seals 
on south polar pack. 

Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, inspect- 
ing ice field near glacier, Antarctic Ocean. 

EUROPE 

142 stereographs or slides 

British Isles 
36 stereographs or slides 
ENGLAND — 16 stereographs or slides 

347 (3028) Landing Stage, Liverpool, England. 

348 (2101) London Bridge over the Thames River, England. 

349 (V2111) Tower of London, London, England. 

350 (3002) Westminster Abbey, London, England. 

351 (3004) The Bank of England, London, England. 

352 (11301) The House of Lords, London, England. 

353 (6146) The regulator of the world's clocks, Greenwich, England. 

354 (3009) Birthplace of William Shakespeare, Stratford-on-Avon, 

England. 

355 (3012) Anne Hathaway's Cottage, Shottery, England. 

356 (3010) Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, 

England. 

357 (13149) Harvesting wheat in Old England. 



GREAT BRITAIN — GERMANY 



21 



358 (21561) Whitefaced Herefords — an English breed of beef cattle 

of worldwide fame. 

359 (21200) A nightingale on its sheltered nest. 

360 (3015) York and its Cathedral, England. 

361 (13120) Lake Grasmere and Village from Red Bank, Lake Dis- 

trict, England. 

362 (13123) Rydal Mount, home of Poet Wordsworth, Lake District, 

England. 



WALES — J stereograph or slide 

363 (2702) Fairy Glen, Bettws-y-Coed, Wales. 

CHANNEL ISLANDS— J stereograph or slide 

364 (21522) Jersey cattle, the most famous product of the Island of 

Jersey, Channel Islands. 

SCOTLAND — p stereographs or slides 

365 (2610) Princess Street and Waverly Gardens, Edinburgh, Scot- 

land. 

366 (12711) Highlanders in native costume at the great Forth Bridge, 

one and one-half miles long, spanning the Firth of 
Forth, Queensferry, Scotland. 

367 (12703) Historic Stirling Castle, Scotland. 

368 (12704) Wallace Monument, the national memorial to Scotland's 

daring chieftain, Stirling, Scotland. 

369 (2607) Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, Scotland. 

370 (21501) Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle developed 

in Scotland. 

371 (21502) A beautiful and productive type of dairy cattle (Ayr- 

shire) originating in County Ayr, Scotland. 

372 (12700) Burns' cottage, room where the poet was born, Ayr, 

Scotland. 

373 (12702) A highland home, Scotland. 

IRELAND — 9 stereographs or slides 

374 (2517) Queenstown Harbor, Ireland. 

375 (12619) Street market in Cork, Ireland. 

376 (2503) Blarney Castle, Ireland. 

377 (2500) Lakes of Killarney, Ireland. 

378 (6110) Peat from Irish bogs, High Street, Killarney, Ireland. 

379 (12600) Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 

380 (2504) Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland. 

381 (2508) Royal Avenue, Belfast, Ireland. 

382 (6854) Giant's Causeway, side view of basaltic columns, Ireland. 

GERMANY — n stereographs or slides 

383 (6131) The Reichstags-Gebaude, Berlin, Germany. 

384 (10303) Royal Palace, Berlin, Germany. 



22 



GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 



385 (10378) An open air china market, Coblenz, Germany. 

386 (2011) Hamburg from across the Elbe, Germany. 

387 (10336) Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany. 

388 (10376) Making hay in the highlands of Bavaria, Germany. 

389 See France after No. 426. 

390 (10352) Toiling in the vineyards — picking the luscious grapes, 

Rudesheim, Germany. 

391 (10377) The Rhine Valley at Bingen, Germany. 

392 (10339) The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 

393 (2002) Market, Cologne, Germany. 

394 (18000) Zeppelin flying over a German town — lower valley of 

the Rhine. 



BELGIUM — 4 stereographs or slides 

395 (6121) In the vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. 

396 (2084) Milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 

397 (10115) River Meuse and Pare de la Citadel, Namur, Belgium. 

398 (21577) Belgian draft horses — a world champion in foreground. 

THE NETHERLANDS — 5 stereographs or slides 

399 (12202) The New Market and canal, Amsterdam, Holland. 

400 (12203) On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam, Holland. 

401 (6436) A Dutch fishing village, Island of Marken, Zuider Zee, 

Holland. 

402 (6435) Quaint street in Marken near Amsterdam, Holland. 

403 (12201) Dutch farm hands milking Holstein-Friesian cattle near 

Rotterdam, Holland. 

DENMARK — 3 stereographs or slides 

404 (13080) Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. 

405 (13082) A busy market square, Copenhagen, Denmark. 

406 (13077) The Krystal-Gade and the Round Tower, Copenhagen, 

Denmark. 

NORWAY — o stereographs or slide's 

407 (13414) The Lotefos, Norway's most famous waterfall. 

408 (13408) In the fair and fertile Jordal Valley — Buerbrae Glacier 

in distance, Norway. 

409 (13496) Carding and spinning wool — snow capped Mt. Boerte- 

nose in the background, Telemarken, Norway. 

410 (13420) Making the " flat bread" of the Norwegian peasant, Nor- 

way. 

411 (13422) Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. 

412 (13467) Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp. 

Paper Mills. Skotifos, Norway. 

413 (15770) Laplanders milking the reindeer. Norway. 

414 (15774) Midnight sun, North Cape, Lapland. 

415 (15768) Floating whale station, Spitsbergen, Lapland. 



SWEDEN — FRANCE — SPAIN 



23 



SWEDEN — 5 stereographs or slides 

416 (13000) General view of Stockholm, Sweden. 

417 (13003) The Council Room, Royal Palace, Stockholm, Sweden. 

418 (13015) Dalecarlian girls at home, Skansen, Stockholm, Sweden. 

419 (13017) Women weeding a field of sugar beets, Sweden. 

420 (13029) Custom-house scene and harbor of the enterprising city of 

Goteborg, Sweden. 

FRANCE — 12 stereographs or slides 

421 (11741) Bird's-eye view of Paris from the Arch of Triumph, 

France. 

422 (1641) Avenue Champs Elysees, Paris, France. 

423 (11787) Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge at 6 o'clock a. m., 

Paris, France. 

424 (1603) The Grand Opera, Paris, France. 

425 (3104) Notre Dame, Paris, France. 

426 (18716) Where American troops helped turn the tide of the 

World's War, Chateau-Thierry, France. 
3S9 (10371) Kleber Place, in the heart of Strassburg, France. 

427 (10732) Glacier des Bossons, Chamonix, France. 

428 (10734) Mer de Glace (sea of ice), from the Montanvert, 

Chamonix, France. 

429 (6102) The Cathedral, near busy docks, Marseilles, France. 

430 (11760) A seaside paradise — Cannes, France. 

431 (11766) Women washing clothes, Nice, France. 

MONACO — i stereograph or slide 

432 (11754) Monaco — The Prince's Castle in view. 
SPAIN 

433 (15808) 

434 (15814) 

435 (15800) 

436 (967) 

437 (15834) 

438 (15828) 

439 (966) 



the 



-7 stereographs or slides 
Commodious harbor of Barcelona, looking towards the 

Columbus Monument and custom-house, Spain. 
General view of Burgos, Spain. 
Panorama of Madrid, showing fete celebration in 

foreground, Spain. 
Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain. 
Picking Valencia oranges, near Valencia, Spain. 
Andalusian carts coming into town, Almeria, Spain. 
Rock of Gibraltar, England's only possession on mainland 

of Europe. 



SWITZERLAND — io stereographs or slides 

440 (10770) To the clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 

441 (10798) Braving Alpine perils — on the top of Mt. Pilatus over- 

looking a sea of clouds, Switzerland. 

442 (10781) The Kapellbrucke crossing the River Reuss, Lucerne, 

Switzerland. 

443 (6130) The Wood Carver, Meiringen, Switzerland. 

444 (10750) Lauterbrunnen Valley and the lovely fall of the Staubbach, 

Switzerland. 



24 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

445 (10702) A mountain chalet, Grindelwald, Switzerland. 

446 (10703) Blowing the alpine horn, Grindelwald, Switzerland. 

447 (10705) Grindelwald on market day, Switzerland. 

448 (10765) Looking at the Matterhorn from Riffelburg Hotel, 

Switzerland. 

449 (10793) Goods for the High Alps, near Zermatt, Switzerland. 

ITALY — io stereographs or slides 

450 (1901) Rome, the Eternal City, from the balcony of St. Peter's, 

Italy. 

451 (11200) The Tiber, Castle of San Angelo, and St. Peter's Cathe- 

dral, Rome, Italy. 

452 (11234) Colosseum, the "King of Ruins," Rome, Italy. 

453 (14614) The forum of Pompeii and Vesuvius, Italy. 

454 (1972) A Neapolitan team, Naples, Italy. 

455 (16830) Street scene in tenement district, Palermo, Sicily. 

456 (1952) Vecchio bridge across the River Arno, Florence, Italy. 

457 (6482) Grand Canal, Venice, Italv. 

458 (1941) The Cathedral, Milan, Italy. 

459 (7282) Lake Como and village, Como, Italy. 

AUSTRIA — 3 stereographs or slides 

460 (15614) Marie Theresa Platz, Innsbruck, Austria. 

461 (15610) Public Square, looking toward Schlossberg, Gratz, Aus- 

tria. 

462 (15607) Along the Danube Canal in the very heart of Vienna, 

Austria. 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA — / stereograph or slide 

463 (15668) Historic Carlstein Castle near Prague, Bohemia. 
HUNGARY — i stereograph or slide 

464 (15656) One of Europe's famous avenues, Andrassy Strasse, 

Budapest, Hungary. 

465 See Poland. 

JUGO-SLAVIA — 2 stereographs or slides 

466 (15611) Natives in market place. Serajevo, Bosnia. 

467 (17300) View of junction of Save River with the Danube — Hun- 

garian city of Semlin in distance at the right — from 
heights of Belgrade, Serbia. 

BULGARIA — 2 stereographs or slides 

468 (17207) Street scene showing peasant woman and sidewalk coffee 

house, Sofia, Bulgaria. 

469 (17218) Native market scene, Rustchuk, Bulgaria. 

ROUMANIA — 2 stereographs or slides 

470 (17200) The great railway bridge over the Danube River at 

Cerna-Voda, Roumania. 



TURKEY — TURKEY IN ASIA 25 

471 (15658) Roumanian mother and children, on the bank of the 

Danube, Roumania. 

TURKEY — 3 stereographs or slides 

472 (10953) The famous Galata Bridge and the Golden Horn, Con- 

stantinople, Turkey. 

473 (10977) Mosque of St. Sophia, Constantinople, Turkey. 

474 (7178) Street scene in Constantinople, Turkey. 

GREECE — 6 stereographs or slides 

475 (964) Athens and Acropolis, Greece. 

476 (7127) The Royal Palace, soldiers in national dress, Athens, 

Greece. 

477 (7134) Excavators at work, Old Corinth, Greece. 

478 (7155) Ruins of Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece. 

479 (7170) Treading out the grain, threshing as in olden days, 

Greece. 

480 (7171) Shepherds and their flocks on the Argive Plain, Greece. 

FINLAND — / stereograph or slide 

481 (6652) Fishwives of Finland — a busy scene on the quay. 

RUSSIA AND THE UKRAINE — 6 stereographs or slides 

482 (6656) Senate and the Academy on the Vasili Island, Petrograd, 

Russia. 

483 (6549) The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. 

484 (6644) The great bell market at the Fair, Nizhni Novgorod, 

485 See Poland. 

486 (18104) The Krestchatik, the principal street of Kief, one of the 

famous old cities of Ukraine. 

487 (18103) Quaint dairy maids delivering milk in earthenware jars 

suspended on poles, Kief. Ukraine. 

488 (18101) Plowing with a primitive native plow — how the Rus- 

sian peasant tills his leased fields. 

POLAND — 2 stereographs or slides 
465 (15609) Polish school children, Zakopane, Galicia. 
485 (20462) Hat and clothes market, Jewish quarter, Warsaw. 

ASIA 

66 stereographs or slides 

ASIA MINOR — 3 stereographs or slides 

489 (10969) Looking up the Bosporus toward the Black Sea from the 

heights above Scutari, Asia Minor. 

490 (10975) Circassian native types of Asia Minor. 

491 (11156) City blacksmith shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus, 

Asia Minor. 



26 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

SYRIA — 3 stereographs or slides 

492 (11151) Bird's-eye view of Beirut, Syria. 

493 (7323) Over the roofs, "the street called Straight," Damascus, 

Syria. 

494 (20703) A Sheik and his bodyguard, Syria. 

PALESTINE — 4 stereographs or slides 

495 (7304) View of Jerusalem, from Mount of Olives, Palestine. 

496 (7306) Russian pilgrims returning from the Jordan, on the 

Jericho road, Palestine. 

497 (11071) The threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 

498 (11058) Native women grinding wheat, Palestine. 

Indian Empire 

13 stereographs or slides 
INDIA PROPER — jo stereographs or slides 

499 (12501) Madras and harbor, India. 

500 (12564) The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River in Delta oi 

the Ganges, Calcutta, India. 

501 (12556) Pilgrims bathing in the sacred Ganges before the temple 

in Benares, the religious center of India. 

502 (12568) The Taj Mahal, Agra, India. 

503 (12558) Moslem multitudes leaving the Jumma Mosque, Delhi, 

India. 

504 (12560) Abundant and marvelous life of India thronging the 

spacious thoroughfare, Jaipur, India. 

505 (12554) Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 

506 (12565) Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Srinagar, Kashmir. 

507 (12563) Inflated bullock skins for ferry boats on Sutlej River in 

the Punjab, India. 

508 (12561) "The Roof of the World"— the majestic Himalayas 

rising in matchless splendor above the sea of clouds, 
Darjeeling, Northern India. 

BURMA — i stereograph or slide 

509 (12553) Giant beasts of burden, patient elephants hauling logs 

from the Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. 

CEYLON — 2 stereographs or slides 

511 (12101) Colombo Harbor from the landing jetty, Ceylon. 

512 (12566) Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, sapphires and moonstones, 

Ratnapora, Ceylon. 

SIAM — i stereograph or slide 

510 (23500) Royal elephant hunt, Siam. 

CHINA AND MANCHURIA — 12 stereographs or slides 

513 (12052) "Queen's Road," the business thoroughfare in Hong- 

kong, China. 



JAPANESE EMPIRE 



27 



514 (14559) On the river, Canton, China. 

515 (12079) The Yangtze River Valley at Chinkiang, China. 

516 (12076) The Chinese substitute for horse power — manipulating 

a huge stone roller on the streets of Nanking, China. 

517 (14554) China's great river Yangtze, showing Hankow from 

Wuchang, China. 

518 (V14558) Train of Bactrian camels, Peking, China. 

519 (14557) An open air restaurant, Peking, China. 

520 (12007) Chinese school children and teacher at the American 

Board of Missions, Peking, China. 

521 (14517) Store of rich Chinese tea merchant, Chifu, North China. 

522 (6631) Chinese farmer boys tilling the soil, near Port Arthur. 

523 (6571) Chinamen sawing timbers for the Japanese Army, Man- 

churia. 

524 (14555) Caravan passing through an ancient gateway in the Great 

Wall at the head of the Nankow Pass, North China. 



Japanese Empire 
jo stereographs or slides 

JAPAN PROPER — 17 stereographs or slides 

525 (14812) The Sacred Mountain of Fuji-Yama, Japan. 

526 (14032) Tokyo, the Japanese Capital. 

527 (14791) Threshing rice by pulling the grains from the stem, Japan. 

528 (14730) Rice planters at work, Japan. 

529 (14789) Rice harvest — cutting the straw close to the ground with 

a sickle, Japan. 

530 (14739) A country girl of Old Japan — among the famous tea 

fields of Shizuoka, Japan. 

531 (14845) Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. 

532 (14058) All sorts and sizes — a Japanese shoe shop. 

533 (14727) Interior of a Japanese home — showing method of sleep- 

ing. 

534 (14045) In the "Land of Flowers," a tea house in Japan. 

535 (14047) An idyllic spot where little Japanese maids delight to 

stroll. 

536 (14746) Silk worm incubator, Japan. 

537 (14744) Gathering mulberry leaves for the silk worms, Japan. 

538 (14748) Feeding mulberry leaves to the voracious young silk 

worms, Japan. 

539 (14750) Silkworm cocoons in their nests, Kiryu, Japan. 

540 (14753) Reeling silk from cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. 

541 (14757) One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants — 

American machinery and American methods, Kiryu, 
Japan. 



28 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

CHOSEN (KOREA) — 2 stereographs or slides 

542 (14076) White-robed pottery peddlers on the streets of Seoul, 

Chosen (Korea). 

543 (20601) Charcoal carriers, Chosen (Korea). 

SIBERIA — / stereograph or slide 

544 (14519) Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 

East Indies 

9 stereographs or slides 
JAVA — J stereograph or slide 

545 (16400) One of the great active volcanoes of Java. 

PHILIPPINES — 8 stereographs or slides 

546 (10085) " Cascos," the floating homes of many thousands — house 

boats on the Pasig River, Manila, Island of Luzon, P. I. 

547 (10058) Calle Real, principal street of Walled City, Manila from 

top of Parian Gate, Island of Luzon, P. I. 

548 (10056) Cattle used as pack animals and for riding — Mayon in 

the background, Island of Luzon, P. I. 

549 (10064) Filipino farmers harrowing rice fields near Manila, P. I. 

550 (10070) Hulling rice for breakfast — Island of Luzon, P. I. 

551 (10074) Husking coconuts — a familiar scene in the great coconut 

country near Pagsanjan, Island of Luzon, P. I. 

552 (10035) Manila hemp industry — stripping the tree, Philippines. 

553 (10047) Manila hemp industry — interior of a native rope factory, 

Philippines. 

GUAM — 1 stereograph or slide 

554 (16401) Mission Home Grounds, Island of Guam. 

AFRICA 

30 stereographs or slides 
MOROCCO — / stereograph or slide 

555 (17130) Teeming Arab life in the market place, Tangier, Morocco. 

ALGIERS — 1 stereograph or slide 

556 (17000) Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. 

TUNIS — / stereograph or slide 

557 (17131) Outside the fine old gate, Bab-el-Hathera, in the walls of 

Tunis, Tunis. 

EGYPT — 12 stereographs or slides 

558 (9820) Bird's-eye view of Alexandria from British fort, Komed 

Dimas, Egypt. 



BRITISH E. AFRICA — UNION OF S. AFRICA 29 

559 (17020) The Suez Canal from a German liner, looking north, 

Africa. 

560 (9749) The great Nile Bridge, Cairo, Egypt. 

561 (9774) Tilling the soil as in ancient days, Egypt. 

562 (9759) Threshing beans in the field, Egypt. 

563 (6233) Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 

564 (9812) Inundation of the Nile, Egypt. 

565 (9781) The Sphinx and Second Pyramid, Egypt. 

566 (9771) Ancient and modern Egypt, Sakkara. 

567 (9843) Caravan leaving oasis in the desert of Egypt. 

568 (9737) Ruins of Karnak, Egypt. 

569 (6242) The great dam, Assuan, Egypt. 

BRITISH EAST AFRICA — 5 stereographs or slides 

570 (17033) Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 

571 (17034) Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 

572 (17011) The native market at Port Florence, Lake Victoria 

Nyanza, Africa. 

573 (17005) Shipping ivory at Mombasa, Africa. 

574 (17018) Dar-es-Salaam, the chief city and port of German East 

Africa. 

RHODESIA — 4 stereographs or slides 

575 (17023) Scene above bridge on the Cape to Cairo Railway, over 

Zambezi River, near Victoria Falls, Africa. 

576 (17004) Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River, Rhodesia, Africa. 

577 (17012) Result of a morning's hippopotamus hunt on Mlembo 

River, Rhodesia, Africa. 

578 (17015) Returning with trophies from a big game hunt, Rhodesia, 

Africa. 



UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA — 6 stereographs or slides 

579 (11979) Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet underground, 

Robinson Mine, Johannesburg, South Africa. 

580 (11881) Imperial Army transports crossing the Vaal River at 

Viljoen's Drift, South Africa. 

581 (17026) Taking out the " diamantif erous blue earth" at Wessel- 

ton Diamond Mines, Kimberley, South Africa. 

582 (17008) City Hall from parade ground, showing Table Moun- 

tain, .Cape Town, South Africa. 

583 (11994) Millions of South African gannets, near Cape Town, 

South Africa. 

584 (17014) Penguins on Dassen Island near Cape Town, South 

Africa. 



30 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION 

AUSTRALIA AND ISLANDS 

8 stereographs or slides 
NEW SOUTH WALES — / stereograph or slide 

585 (15962) Review of the troops, Centennial Park, Sydney, N. S. W. 

VICTORIA — 2 stereographs or slides 

586 (15987) Giant Eucalyptus or Gum Trees, 400 feet high, Victoria. 

587 (15908) Federal Parliament Building, Melbourne, Victoria. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA — / stereograph or slide 

588 (15902) Kangaroo in the zoological garden, Adelaide, South 

Australia. 

QUEENSLAND — i stereograph or slide 

589 (15986) Sheep on the range, Australia. 

TASMANIA — / stereograph or slide 

590 (15903) Elizabeth Street and the Union Bank of Australia, Ho- 

bart, Tasmania. 

NEW ZEALAND — / stereograph or slide 

591 (15978) Looking across Auckland Harbor towards Auckland from 

Northcote, New Zealand. 

NEW GUINEA — / stereograph or slide 

592 (15985) In a Papuan village, New Guinea. 

EARTH NEIGHBORS 

8 stereographs or slides 

593 (16764) The Sun photographed through forty-inch telescope. 

Yerkes Observatory. 

594 (16648) The full Moon. Yerkes Observatory. 

595 (16646) Moon at age of seventeen days. Yerkes Observatory. 

596 (16766) The planet Mars. Yerkes Observatory. 

597 (16767) The planet Saturn. Solar Observatory, at Mt. Wilson, 

Cal. 

598 (16765) The planet Uranus and two of its moons. Yerkes Ob- 

servatory. 

599 (16647) Meteor in constellation of Orion. . Yerkes Observatory. 

600 (16645) Morehouse's Comet. Yerkes Observatory. 



2. PEOPLE OF ALL LANDS 

RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 
By MARK JEFFERSON, A.M. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, 
YPSILANTI, MICH. 

The most common way to distinguish the races of men is by 
the color of their skins. For us the great race must always be 
the white one. The others are the yellow (red) and the black. 
These names are not accurately applied. Black is the best, yet 
black people never are really black. There is greater differ- 
ence of color between a fair Norwegian and a swarthy Italian 
than between the Italian and a black, but the names white, yel- 
low, black stand because of long usage. Races are more ac- 
curately distinguished by the shape of the skull, by the fea- 
tures, and still better by the form of the hair. The Caucasian 
people are marked by the slender prominent nose and by soft, 
wavy hair. Each hair has an oval cross section, and the oval 
form enables it to bend easily. Compare this with the kinky 
hair which, with the broad flat nose and thick lips, is character- 
istic of the negro. The hair is kinky because each hair is flat 
like a ribbon. The yellow and red men have round, rod-like 
hair which is always straight, and high cheek bones. The yel- 
low men also are marked by slanting eyes. Each race is di- 
vided into great families of related people having similarities 
of color, size, shape and disposition. Such are the Teutonic, 
the Celtic, the Slavonic families of the Caucasian race. 

Of the 1700 millions of men today (1917), more than half — 
900 million — are white. They live in Europe or colonies 
from Europe, and parts of India and Malaysia. They are the 
dominant race in every continent, the only race of men that 
have learned to use the forces of nature widely. The only 
race to increase their powers greatly by the use of machinery 
and scientific knowledge. 

3i 



32 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

The 600 millions of the yellow race are next in importance. 
They live mostly in Asia and have attained in China and Japan 
a degree of culture only second to that of the whites. Indeed, 
now that they have begun to study western science, it is not 
certain that they are still behind. Japan is today one of the 
six Great Powers of the World. Twenty-five million red men 
in America are closely like the yellow men in physical charac- 
ters, the hair rod-like and high cheek bones as in Asia. There 
is no historic knowledge of their coming to America, but they 
are of the yellow race and doubtless came to the New World 
by Bering Sea. In Mexico and Peru a few of them attained a 
moderate amount of civilization, but doubtless the farming 
Indians of Oklahoma are today the most cultivated individuals 
this race has ever known. 

Two hundred million blacks, in Africa and Australasia, are 
the least progressive race of men. Only in America the de- 
scendants of African slaves have had some aspect of civiliza- 
tion thrust upon them. These brief notes on the cultures of 
the different races find considerable illustration in the stereo- 
graphs. 

1. WHITE (CAUCASIAN) RACE 

The white or Caucasian race includes a large number of re- 
lated peoples with many characteristics in common but differ- 
ing in many ways. The skins of the people of the white race 
are really of a great variety of colors — very light in Norway 
and almost black in India or Arabia. A strong racial char- 
acteristic is the wavy or curly hair — the individual hairs be- 
ing slightly flattened threads. 

The white race is the dominant race. It has attained a 
high degree of civilization through its ability to meet suc- 
cessfully its environment and to utilize the forces and re- 
sources of nature to carry on its work. Our material civiliza- 
tion is founded on labor — the labor of the individual or its 
man-power equivalent in mechanical energy. " The power of 
Greece, whereby she achieved such great things in all direc- 
tions of human progress, was largely based in the first instance 
on the work done by the slaves. On the average, each Greek 
freeman, each Greek family, had five slaves, whom we think of 



VARIOUS TYPES IN AMERICA 33 

not at all when we speak of the Greeks, and yet these were the 
men who supplied a great part of the Greek energy." These 
slaves not only did the work of the nation, but they made it 
possible for the free Greek people to devote their time to the 
cultivation of their minds, thus making further progress possi- 
ble. Through present day control of water, steam, gas and 
electric energy and the invention and construction of many 
mechanical appliances in a modern civilized nation such as 
the United States, England or Germany, each family has work- 
ing for it the man-power equivalent of more than twenty 
slaves. " We have become a nation of engineers pressing 
buttons and pulling levers, oiling and packing, so that the great 
social machine will work smoothly and as easily as possible." 



VARIOUS TYPES IN AMERICA 

In America, " the melting pot of the nations," there have been 
brought together large groups of the more advanced peoples of the Cau- 
casian race, who are building a high type of civilization. 

What peoples colonized America? What other peoples arrived later? 
What nations furnish most of our immigrants today? Give racial char- 
acteristics of each large group that has contributed to our population. 
In what section is the influence of each group best shown? What is 
each contributing toward our greater America? 

69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerine. Occupation calling for knowl- 
edge and coolness. 

148 Building dikes, St. Louis, Mo. White laborers resourceful in 
emergencies. 

166 Potato digging machines, Moorhead, Minn. High priced white 
labor in America made effectively cheap by multiplying its power 
with the use of machines. 

30, 139 Trade centers of a complex civilization. 

31, 43 Handling transportation problems. 
161,180,178,179,181,233,177 Show the white man's application of 

mechanical power and skill to agricultural problems. 

152, 144, 14, 16, 40, 41, 54 Show something of our great factory systems 
made possible by the mechanical skill and organizing genius of 
the white race. 

128 How the inventive genius of the white race multiplies man-power 
a hundred fold. 

250 to 256 Building the Panama Canal. One of the greatest achieve- 
ments of the race, 



34 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

226 First haul of the season, Columbia River Salmon Fisheries, Ore- 
gon. Unskilled labor on the frontiers. 

243, 246 Men enduring hardships in search of gold. 

5 Skilled Italian workmen with a heritage of artistic talent. 

266 Fifth Royal Highlanders at Quebec with traditional costume of 
the Scotch Highlands. 



LATIN PEOPLES IN AMERICA 

By far the greater part of the western continent is occupied by Latin 
peoples, that is by peoples whose language and customs are derived from 
those of ancient Rome. Latin America includes Mexico, Central 
America, the West Indies and all of South America. 

Portuguese 

306 Well-to-do Brazilian children, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Properly 
Creoles, European by blood, American by birth. Brazil was 
colonized by the Portuguese who are considered typical repre- 
sentatives of the Mediterranean branch of the Caucasian race. 
Thej' are usually short and very dark. 

Spanish 

336 Charming Spanish girl on balcony, Guayaquil, Ecuador. The rul- 

ing minority in Ecuador is of fairly pure Spanish blood. 

337 Streets of Barranquilla, Colombia. Good street scene. 

339 In LaGuaira Streets, Venezuela. A typical Spanish-American 
street scene. 

Italian 

319 Italian settlers, Mendoza, Argentina Republic. These Italians are 
becoming enormously numerous in the Argentina Republic. 
They alone cultivate the wheat for which that country is best 
known and most of the grapes. 



TEUTONIC PEOPLES 

The Teutons are tall, with very fair skins, light hair, blue eyes, red 
cheeks and slender, prominent noses. Most of the people of northern 
and western Europe are of Teutonic blood. The Scandinavians, inhabi- 
tants of Norway and Sweden, are considered the purest types of Teu- 
tonic people. Teutons are very progressive in scientific practical ways. 

Germany 

The Germans are a mixed people. In the North and West, they 
are of the Teutonic type. In the South they are partly Celtic, while 
east Germany is partly Slav. They are a scientific, practical, well or- 
ganized people. 



ENGLAND — BELGIUM — HOLLAND — NORWAY 35 

385 An open air china market in the streets of Coblenz. 

388 Making hay in the highlands of Bavaria. Shows hand labor, typi- 
cal costume, and probably people of the short broad-headed Al- 
pine race. 

390 Picking grapes in the vineyards of Rudesheim, Germany. Women 
at work in the fields characteristic of all Europe. 

393 Market at Cologne. Very characteristic. Note the number of 
women. 

England 
The English are a mixture of Anglo-Saxon, Celtic and Mediterranean 
people, in which the Anglo-Saxon element predominates. The name 
Anglo-Saxon comes from Angles and Saxons, two Teutonic tribes which 
conquered England before the seventh century. As a rule, the English 
are tall and are about half blond and half brunet. They are among 
the most advanced people in the world in government, literature and 
industrial arts. 

347 Landing Stage, Liverpool, England. The grouping of the people 
and their very carriage are characteristic of the English. 

351 Bank of England, London, street life. 

355 Anne Hathaway's Cottage, Shottery, England. The faces are 
small but English, and attitudes and costume are typical. 

357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. 

Belgium 
Only the northern Belgians are Teutonic; those in the south are 
Celtic. 

395 In the vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. Street scenes and 

life. 

396 Milk cart at Antwerp. A most industrious country. Belgium is 

Dutch in the north and French (Celtic) in the south. 

Holland 

The people of Holland are characteristically Teutonic. 

402 Quaint village street in Holland. Costumes are very striking. 

These people thrive by much industry and cling to old ways. 

403 Dutch farm hands milking Holstein Friesian cattle near Rotter- 

dam, Holland. 

Norway 

Almost all Norwegians are very light skinned, with yellow hair, blue 
eyes, pink cheeks. There are fewer dark ones. Norwegians are al- 
most purely Teutonic. 

409 Carding and spinning wool, Telemarken, Norway. This is the 
home of the fair and tall northern long-headed race. 



36 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

410 Making the " flat bread " of the Norwegian peasant. 

411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord. 

Sweden 

The Swedes are very blond, pure types of Teutonic people. 

418 Dalecarlian girls at home "Skansen," Stockholm. These Swedes 

are examples of the fair, tall, northern long-headed race. The 
costumes are characteristic of a somewhat isolated people, very 
slow to change. 

419 Women weeding a field of sugar beets. Much heavy manual work 

and especially for women. 

CELTIC PEOPLES 

The Celts were a short round-headed people with brown or black 
hair and gray or brown eyes. They are very progressive. 

Scotland 

Only the highland Scotch are Celtic. The lowlanders are Teutonic. 

366 Highlanders in costume, by the Forth Bridge, Queensferry. The 
highland costume, preserved in the uniform of some famous 
regiments of the British army, arose in the isolation of the high- 
land glens. 

373 Tea table by a highland cottage, Scotland. (See also 266 Scot- 
tish peoples in Canada.) 

Ireland 

378 Irish coal for sale, Killarney, High Street. There are now more 
Irish in the United States than in Ireland. 

Wales 

77 Welsh types in American coal mines. 

Switzerland 

The Swiss belong to the Celtic family almost entirely and remains 
of their ancient dwellings indicate that this has always been so. The 
Swiss speak German, French and Italian in the various cantons. 

443 Wood carver, Meiringen. Example of the Alpine, broad-headed 

race. 
447 Grindelwald on market«day. Small, but good Swiss types. 
449 Goods for the high Alps near Zermatt. Well illustrates the hard, 

heavy labor which, when combined with spare diet, stunts the 

mountain races. 

France 

A considerable part of the French people and especially the north- 
western provinces are of Celtic origin. 



LATIN PEOPLES — HELLENIC PEOPLES 37 

LATIN PEOPLES IN EUROPE 

(See also Latin Peoples in America) 

Latin peoples are those whose languages and customs are derived di- 
rectly from those of ancient Rome. 

France 

The French people are a mixture being partly of the Celtic, partly of 
the Teutonic and partly of the Mediterranean type. They are very 
progressive, artistic and thrifty. 

423 Flower market at Michael's bridge, Paris. The French are won- 
derfully pleasant and capable at buying and selling. They are 
largely Celtic. 

146 French war commission — Joffre, blue-eyed Celtic or Teutonic 
type; Fabry, Celtic; Viviani and Chocheprat, Latin. 

431 Women washing clothes, Nice. All the Latin peoples do in the 
open much work that northerners do in houses, which tends to 
sociability and 'good manners. 

Spain 

The Spanish are almost universally dark skinned with black hair and 
eyes. 

435 Panorama of Madrid. The figures in the near foreground are 
typical. These are of the dark southern long-headed race, of 
medium stature. 

438 Andalusian carts coming into Almeria. Note the bad road and 
the unprosperous people. 

Italian Sicily 

455 Tenement district, Palermo. Life is spent as much as possible 
in the open air, but it is plain that they enjoy life. 

Roumanians 

The Roumanians claim a direct descent from the old Romans. 
471 Roumanian mother and children. 

HELLENIC PEOPLES 

Modern Hellenes differ from the other Mediterranean people only in 
their language which is derived from the Ancient Greek. 

Greece 

The present day Greeks can hardly claim descent from the ancient 
Greeks for their country has been overrun by all sorts of people from 
Goths to Turks. They resemble the Latin people in appearance. 

476 The Royal Palace, Athens. The soldier's costume is perpetuated 
by use in the army, as in the case of the Scotch Highlanders. 



38 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

Peculiar dress is apt to arise in communities isolated in moun- 
tain valleys. 

479 Treading out the grain, threshing as of old. Old ways/ of dress, 
old ways of speech and old ways of work are characteristic. 

SLAVONIC PEOPLES 
The Slavs occupy the eastern part of Europe and on the whole are 
not so far advanced as the Teutons, Celts or the Latin people. They 
are commonly of medium height with dark hair and grey or hazel eyes. 

Polish Galicia 

465 Polish school children, Zakopane. 

Bosnia 

466 Natives in market place, Serajevo. 

Russia and the Ukraine 

European Russia has a population which is almost entirely Slavonic. 
They are making rapid advances in late years. 

487 Quaint dairy maids, Kief. 

488 Primitive plow. Old costume, old ways, and little progress. 

496 Russian Pilgrims return from the Jordan, Palestine. Character- 
istic of the simple faith of the Russian people is the great im- 
portance they attach to a visit to the Holy Land and baptism in 
Jordan. 

544 Boarding train at Kansk, Siberia. Russian emigrants. 

PEOPLE OF THE CAUCASUS 
People of the Caucasus are mountaineers, largely isolated from the 
rest of the world. The most prominent tribe is the Circassian noted 
for physical beauty. 

490 Circassian native types, Asia Minor. 

SEMITIC PEOPLES 
Jews, Arabs, Syrians, Armenians and north Africans are Semites. 
They are dark skinned, some of them as black as negroes, but their 
features and hair show they are members of the Caucasian race. 

Syria 

Syrians are not a progressive people. 

491 City blacksmith shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus. 

494 A sheik and his bodyguard. A good type of the desert Semites, 
in clothing, arms and mount. 

Palestine 

Palestine or the Holy Land is the southern part of Syria. 



POLAND — EGYPT — CAUCASIAN PEOPLES 39 

498 Native women grinding wheat. Such labor as this with the sim- 
plest possible mechanical appliances, is not merely curious but 
characteristic of the Semitic peoples. 

Poland 
In Poland the Jews are crowded into one quarter and so are not 
progressive as in the western countries where they are scattered among 
the rest of the population. 

485 Jewish quarters, Warsaw, Poland. Costumes and faces are typi- 
cally Jewish. 

Eygpt 

566 Tigran Bey and his servant. Sakkara. Both are very black, yet 
their features indicate that they belong to the white race. 

CAUCASIAN PEOPLES OF INDIA 

The Caucasians of India are very dark, with dark eyes and hair. 
There seems to have been a mixture with yellow or black people. 
503 Some interesting types of Caucasian peoples of India. 

506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Srinagar, Kashmir. By 

language many Indian peoples are cousins of the great peoples 
of Europe, and racially they have much in common. But in 
habits they have grown far apart. The people of northern India 
are the lightest in color. 

507 Inflated bullock skins for ferry boats, Sutlej River, Punjab. The 

most curious thing about such a contrivance is that people could 
be willing to put up with a contrivance which served its purpose 
so badly. 

Ceylon 

512 Grinding gems at Ratnapora. The product, we are sure, will be 
of a high degree of artistic skill and finish, but how profitable 
to put a little more thought on the machine ! 

CAUCASIAN PEOPLES OF THE PACIFIC 

Some of the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific are undoubtedly 
of the Caucasian race as is shown by the head and the hair. There is 
probably a mixture with either the black or yellow race. 

Hawaiian Islands 

The features of the native Hawaiians are often very distinctly of 
the Caucasian type. 
261 Hula Girls, Honolulu. 

AUSTRALIA 

The Australians are really Europeans who have migrated or their 
descendants. They are very much like the people of the United States. 



40 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

For the most part they came from the British Isles and are Teutonic 
or Celtic. 

590 Street life similar to ours. 



2. YELLOW RACE 

The skin tint is really very varied even among the " yellow " Mon- 
golians and the " red " Indians. A very strong characteristic of the 
whole race is its straight, rather coarse hair. Each individual hair is 
round and rod-like. That is why it is straight. 



A. MONGOLIAN PEOPLES 

Norway (Lapland) 

413 Laplanders milking reindeer. Practically all the dwellers by the 
Arctic in Europe as well as Asia and America are Mongols. 

North Greenland 

343 Eskimo girls at Upernavik. The Mongolian character of the 
Eskimo and Indian face together with other physical characters 
and habits make it practically certain that they came from Asia. 
The Eskimos of Greenland have a considerable percentage of 
Scandinavian (Danish) blood. 

Bulgaria 

Bulgarians now are of Mongol stock with a large admixture of Sla- 
vonic blood. 

469 Market scene in Rustchuk. The Bulgarians are known to be 
Mongols who came into Europe from Asia and adopted a Sla- 
vonic language there, illustrating how poor a guide to race is 
language. 

China 

The people of China are typical of the real Mongolians. They have 
the yellow skin, slanting eyes and straight hair. Many of the Chinese 
are very tall. 

520 Chinese school children and teacher, Peking, China. 
519 An open air restaurant, Peking, China. 

518 Train of Bactrian camels, Peking. 

521 Store of Chinese tea merchant, Chifu, China. Chinese costume 

and street life. 



JAPAN — CHOSEN — AMERICAN INDIANS 41 

523 Chinamen sawing timber for Japanese Army, Manchuria. Illus- 
trating methods of work that seem very inferior to ours, but it 
must be remembered human labor is very cheap in China. A 
steam engine is not always economical there. 

227 Chinamen working in salmon canning factories, Astoria, Ore. 
Illustrating the modern migration of cheap unskilled labor from 
Asia to America. Were it not restricted by law it would take 
very large proportions. 



Japan 

The Japanese are the most advanced of all the Mongolian people. 

530 Country girl of old Japan in the tea fields, Shizuoka. 

531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu. In Japan as in Continental 

Europe women do much field work. 

532 A Japanese shoe shop. These people have worked out a life that 

differs from ours in almost every detail. 

533 Japanese bed. The native way. 

534 Japanese babies. It is reported that Japanese babies never cry ! 

535 Japanese maids in a garden. 

528 Rice planters at work, Japan. Illustrating the great amount of 

hand labor done in the east, and properly so because it is so 
cheap. 

529 Rice harvest with sickle. 

536 Silk worm incubator. 

538 Feeding silk worms on mulberry leaves. The partly closed eyes 
of the girl well show the " slant eyes " of the Mongolian people. 

541 Modern silk mill with American machinery. This is the Japan 

that has put on European clothes and European ways — the new 
Japan. 

Chosen (Korea) 

The people of Chosen resemble the Chinese more than the Japanese. 

542 White robed pottery peddlers, Seoul, Korea. Native life. 

543 Charcoal carriers. 

Luzon Philippinos 

The Philippinos are brown in color and are probably a variation of 
the yellow race. 
550 Hulling rice for breakfast. 

B. AMERICAN INDIANS (RED RACE) 
The American Indian is copper colored, he has high cheek bones, 
black eyes, and straight, rod-like, black hair. The eyes do not slant. 



42 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

United States 

These Indians are tall and straight. They are rapidly disappearing 
because they are adopting the ways of the whites and are gradually 
becoming mixed with the white people. 

158, 168, 169 American Indians re-enacting the story of Hiawatha. 

182 Mounted Sioux Indians leaving camp. 

204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. The Indian today is at his best 

when he lives apart from the whites. 
211 Taos Indians and pueblo, New Mexico. 
244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 



Canada 

263 Indians weaving baskets, Prince Edward Island. The Indian who 
lives among white men today dresses in discarded white men's 
clothes and is degraded at once. 

265 Iroquois Indians re-enacting their past at Quebec. 



Mexico 

The peoples of Mexico, and they are very numerous distinct tribes, 
are of the same race as the other American Indians, the Peruvians and 
the Eskimos. The old Mexicans and Peruvians were the only ones of 
these peoples that lived in regions where the soil was good but too 
little rain fell to support forests. Where there were forests the In- 
dian could only live as a savage in the natural clearings. Without the 
iron axe he could not clear the forest away. On the treeless plateaus 
of Mexico and Peru he was able to live entirely by agriculture as soon 
as he learned to bring water from occasional streams. So in these two 
situations he became somewhat civilized. 

280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. More than half the people 

of Mexico are Indians and a great many of the rest are half 
breeds. They preserve their native Indian languages and cus- 
toms in many cases. 

281 Adobe hut of the peon, City of Mexico. 
285 Drawing pulque. Native life. 

Salvador 

292 Tortilla making. These are especially good types of the Indians 
prevalent through Central and South America. 

Chile 

324 Chilean woman, Santiago. She has a good deal of Spanish blood. 
328 Indians in the Straits of Magellan, near Punta Arenas, about the 

lowest type in America. They live miserably in constant want. 

325 Natives sacking nitrate for shipment, Chile. 



THE BLACK RACE 43 

Peru 

331 Natives in Cuzco. These are descendants of the partly civilized 
ancient Peruvians but they are today very backward people. 

Venezuela 

340 National University, Caracas. There is a good deal of Spanish 

blood admixed with the Indian here. 
338 LaGuaira. Almost no women accompanied the early Spanish 
" conquistadores " of America. The descendants of the early 
Spaniards and native women are now accounted of " pure " 
Spanish descent. 

341 The city baker, Caracas. Woolly hair often indicates admixture 

of negro blood, for slaves were brought to South America in 
the old days as well as to the United States, though they were 
set free long before our Civil War. 

3. THE BLACK RACE 

There is much more appropriateness in calling this great race black 
than the Caucasians white yet there are considerable variations in tint 
bere. The blacks in the tropics have an admirable mahogany tint, a 
warm glow in their skins that is difficult to imagine if you have seen 
them only in the temperate zone. A strong racial characteristic is 
their kinky or strongly curly hair, resulting from the fact that each in- 
dividual hair is flat like a ribbon rather than round like a thread. 

New Guinea, Pacific Ocean 

592 Papuans. Note the black, curly hair. 

South Africa 

581 Kaffirs working in the diamond mines at Kimberley. These blacks 
are overwhelmingly more numerous than the white people of 
South Africa and are natives of the country. They are dis- 
tinctly the working class and have no part in government. 

579 Negro laborers mining gold. Johannesburg, So. Africa. 

570 Negro in Africa making primitive clothing from bark. 

572, 577, 578 Negro life under tropical African conditions. 

Africans in America 
These are descendants of blacks brought here from Africa as slaves. 

105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. The blacks are the laboring class 

of the southern states. They receive small pay and give little 

work for it. 
115 Loading phosphate (fertilizer) from the beds, Columbia, Tenn. 

Blacks as manual laborers. 
1.17 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. When machines are 

introduced for this, cotton will be much cheaper. 



44 RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 

118 Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Ark. About a third of the people 
of the South are blacks but most of the manual labor there is 
done by this class. 

249 Black workers of Old Panama Canal Co., Panama. When the ac- 
tual Canal was dug by the United States, negroes from Jamaica 
as well as whites from Spain were employed but the latter 
were more economical even at higher wages. 

258 Cutting sugar cane. In Porto Rico the intermingling of whites 
and blacks has gone very far and negro blood does not lower 
a man in the eyes of society. 

302 Coffee pickers, Island of Guadeloupe, F. W. Indies. These are 
probably French mulattoes mostly, the turban is the sign and the 
French blood gives them a touch of French taste that is at once 
visible in their dress. The French island blacks are easily 
recognized. 



• 



3. PRODUCTION AND MANU- 
FACTURING 

INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY 

By CHARLES REDWAY DRYER, M.A., M.D. 

GEOGRAPHER, FORT WAYNE, IND. 

This is an industrial age. In recent years, there has been 
a rapid growth in our industrial resources and equipment. 
There has been a marked movement of our population to the 
larger centers where manufacturing on a large scale has be- 
come the rule. Our inventive skill and our genius for or- 
ganization have produced great factories equipped with labor 
saving machinery, handled by skilled workers. Under such 
conditions, production has gone forward at a rapid rate. 
The Great World War has put this vast productive system 
to the strongest test. It also has served to emphasize most 
clearly agriculture, which is not only our greatest industry, 
but also supplies the material for many other industries. 

This set of stereographs and lantern slides contains a very 
considerable range of material dealing with industries. In 
this classification, we are treating Industrial* Geography as 
dealing with Production and Manufacturing, leaving for the 
classifications on Commercial Geography to present the 
Transportation and Marketing of products. 

The instructor may wish to present the question of produc- 
tion and manufacturing by the consideration of a given in- 
dustry as a whole. This plan is followed in Part I. Again 
he may wish to deal with industrial material upon the basis of 
the processes concerned. For such a classification see Part II. 



45 



46 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

Part I 

A. 'FOOD PRODUCTS 

1. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE 

(a) GRAINS 

Corn 

180 Fertilizing and plowing corn field. 
184 Field of corn, the king of cereals. 

136 Modern method corn harvesting. 

137 Corn cut by hand. 

160 Harvesting and loading silage corn. 

165 Silo which enables the dairyman to feed milk-producing green 

fodder throughout the winter. 
292 Primitive way of preparing corn for the table. 
341 Primitive way of selling bread, Caracas, Venezuela. 

Wheat 

Modem Methods 

178 Plowing for wheat with tractor. 

179 Making a good seed bed for wheat with tractor. 
357 Usual way of cutting wheat with binder. 

177 Threshing wheat with modern equipment. 

233 Steam reaper and thresher. 

218 Combined reaper and thresher using horse power. 

48 Grain ships unloading at elevators, Buffalo. 

• Primitive Methods 

488 Russian peasant plowing with primitive plow. 

561 Plowing as in ancient days, Egypt. 

522 Plowing in China. 

527 Ancient mode of threshing in Japan. 

479 Threshing as in olden days, Greece. 

497 Threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 

498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine. 

Barley 

199 Harvesting barley by modern methods. 
410 Making the barley " flat bread," Norway. 
566 Barley field, Egypt. 

Oats 
147 Loading oats in the field. 
408 Small field of oats, Norway. 



GRAINS — VEGETABLES — SUGAR 47 

Rice 

105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. 

104 Irrigating rice field, South Carolina 

549 Filipino harrowing rice field. 

550 Filipino women hulling rice for breakfast. 
528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 

527 Threshing rice, Japan. 

530 Rice on the lowlands, tea on the uplands, Japan. 
See Paper in this classification for use of rice straw. 



(b) VEGETABLES 

Potatoes 

47 Potatoes growing on a truck farm. 
166 Modern potato digging machines, Minn. 

Beans 

562 Threshing beans in the field, Egypt. 

Onions, Cabbage 

375 Vegetables and eggs for sale, Cork, Ireland. 

469 Onions and cabbage for sale in a Bulgarian market. 

Pumpkins 

137 Pumpkins on an Indiana farm. 

(c) SUGAR 

Beet 

419 Women weeding field of beets in Sweden. 
198 Cultivating a field of sugar beets. 

270 Beets stored to make into sugar. 

271 Beet pulp and juice in sugar factory. 

35 Granulated sugar is made from either beet or cane. 

Cane 

332 Tractor preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 

333 Replanting sugar cane near Lima, Peru. 

258 Cutting the sugar cane, Rio Pedro, Porto Rico. 
35 Granulated sugar is made from either beet or cane. 
34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from drying kiln, 
New York. 

Maple 

130 Tapping a sugar maple tree; showing gathering tank for the sap 
and house where sap is evaporated and maple syrup and sugar 
are made. 



» 



48 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

(d) FRUITS 

Bananas 

294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica. 

259 Banana tree used for ornamentation, Hawaii. 

297 The banana planted for shade in a tobacco plantation, Cuba. 

302 The banana planted for shade in a coffee plantation, Guadeloupe, 

F. W. I. 
570, 575 The banana in Africa. 

Oranges 

237 Orange groves near Redlands, California. 

238 Orange blossoms and fruit, California. 

437 Picking Valencia oranges near Valencia, Spain. 

Pineapples 

108 Harvesting pineapples, Fla. 

Grapes 

236 Tokay grapes in a California vineyard. 

319 Grape vineyards in Mendoza, Argentina, S. A. 

390 Picking the luscious grapes, Rudesheim, Germany. 

438 Hauling barrels of Malaga grapes to Almeria, Spain, for shipping 

abroad. 

Papaya 

259 Fruit of the papaw tree, Hawaii. 

Dates 

556, 566 Date palm, furnishing fruit and wood in many semi-desert 
parts of Asia and Africa. 

Olive 

240 The olive tree, an evergreen tree from the Mediterranean region. 

Peach 

85 Gathering peaches in Delaware. 

Apples 

44 Summer spraying in apple orchard in New York. 
175 Picking, sorting and packing apples in barrels, Missouri. 

Figs 

489 Three fig trees in foreground, Scutari, Turkey. 



NUTS — BEVERAGES 49 

(e) NUTS 

Almonds 

234 Harvesting almonds, San Joaquin County, Calif. 

Coconuts 

249 The coconut palm in the Panama Canal Zone. 

259 The coconut palm in the Hawaiian Island. 

551 Husking the coconuts and splitting them to dry in the sun, P. I. 

Chestnuts 

70 Group of tall chestnut trees growing from an old stump. Penn- 
sylvania has more chestnut timber than has any other state. 

Peanuts 

118 Harvesting peanuts in Arkansas, commonly classed as a nut but 
in reality a vegetable. 



(f) BEVERAGES 

Cocoa 

303 Cacao pods, containing beans from which cocoa and chocolate 
are made. 

Coffee 

302 Picking coffee in Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 

310 Method of drying coffee, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, S. A. 

311 Carts loaded with coffee leaving plantation, Brazil, S. A 
468 Sidewalk coffee house, Sofia, Bulgaria. 



Tea 

530 Among the famous tea fields of Shizuoka, Japan. 

521 Store of Chinese tea merchant, Chifu. 

534 Tea house in Japan. 

373 Serving tea in Scotland. 



Pulque 

234 Field of maguey plants, Mexico. 

?85 Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant, Mexico. 

287 Single maguey or century plant, with field of them beyond. 



50 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 



2. ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE 

(a) Dairying, Milk and Butter 

Cows 

159 Group of modern dairy barns and herd of Holstein cattle, Wis. 

165 Holstein cattle and attractive dairy barns and silo, Minn. 

57 Milking scene in modern dairy, N. J. 

46 Automatic machine for filling and capping bottles of milk. 

45 Washing 1,000 pounds of freshly churned butter. 

487 Quaint dairy maids delivering milk, Kiev, Russia. 

339 Native method of distributing milk, La Guayra, Venezuela. 

403 Milking Holstein-Friesian cattle near Rotterdam, Holland. 

364 Jersey cattle, the most famous product of the Island of Jersey. 

356 Dairy shorthorn cattle in England. 

371 Dairy cattle developed in County Ayrshire, Scotland. 

591 Dairy cattle in New Zealand. 

Goats 
411 Milking goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. 

Reindeer 
413 Laplanders milking reindeer, Norway. 

(b) Beef 

370 Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle. 

317 Shorthorns, Argentine's famous cattle. 

358 White faced Herefords — beef cattle of world wide fame. 

127 Making a drive of Hereford cattle in Texas. 

185 Hereford cattle, being fattened for market. 

140 Cattle at Union Stock Yards, Chicago. 

141 The last process in dressing beef — washing with boiling water. 

186 Round-up of range cattle on Sherman Ranch, Geneseo, Kans. 
301 A cattle ranch in Jamaica. 

• 580 Cattle (Devon in foreground) as draft animals, later as beef. 
549 The water buffalo, an important meat supply. 

For hides and their manufacture see topic of Leather in this 
classification. 

(c) Pork 

183 Poland China hogs in alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 

172 Hogs in rape pasture, Iowa. 

180 Group of colony hog houses in distance, Nebraska. 

122 The hog is a good forager, oil district, Texas. 

142 Splitting backbones and final inspection of hogs before placing 

them in refrigerator rooms, Chicago. 



MUTTON — DEER — SEA FOODS 51 

143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling in preparation for 

the market, Chicago. 

144 Making link sausages with the aid of machines which stuff ten 

feet per second, Chicago. 

See also Leather in this classification. 



(d) Mutton 

190, 589 Fine wool Merino sheep grazing on range. (Typical range 

sheep the world over.) 
173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep in pasture, Ames, Iowa. 

(Choice mutton types.) 
480 Shepherds and flocks on Argive plain, Greece. 

For wool see section on Clothing in this classification also classi- 
fication Textiles and Clothing. 

(e) American Bison (Commonly called Buffalo) 
232 Formerly an important source of meat supply. 

(f) Deer 

413 Reindeer. A meat supply of growing importance, now shipped 

from Alaska. 
189 Elk, 2 Moose — fast disappearing species of deer family. 

(g) Chickens, Ducks, Geese, and Pigeons 

56 Chickens form an important meat supply. 
401 Ducks along the canal in Holland, valuable for meat, eggs, and 

feathers. 
216 Geese, for feather products, meat and eggs. 

(h) Hippopotamus 

577 Hippopotamus — flesh much prized by natives. 

578 Natives returning from hippopotamus hunt. 

(i) Sea Foods 

Codfish 

13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. 

Salmon 

226 Netting salmon in the Columbia River, Oregon. 

227 Butchering salmon, canning factory, Astoria, Oregon. 
244 Indians drying salmon on the Yukon River, Alaska. 



52 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

Sardines 

531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. 

Oysters 
97 Bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 
86 Shucking Oysters, Baltimore, Md. 

Fishing in Finland 

481 Fisher women selling fish* in Finland market. 

Seal 

345 Seal blubber is an important article of diet in the Arctic and 
Antarctic regions. The oil is used for fuel and the skin for 
clothing and leather articles. 

Whale 

415 Whale blubber is used for food while the oil and bone form im- 
portant articles of commerce. 

3. INORGANIC PRODUCTS 

Salt 

42 Collecting, draining and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 
153 Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair, Mich. 



B. CLOTHING 
1. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND FACTORY PROCESSES 

(a) Cotton 

Growing 

207 Cultivating field of cotton, Arizona. 

117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 

124 Hauling cotton to the cotton gin. 

125 Cottin gin, Greenville, Texas. 

119 Cotton in the bale ready for shipment, New Orleans, La. 

420 Bales of cotton on wharf, Goteborg, Sweden. 

286 Carding room, cotton mills, Orizaba, Mexico. 

14 Spinning cotton yarn in textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. 

15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth. 

16 Printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. 
563 Primitive method of spinning cotton in Egypt. 

Uses 
For scenes showing uses of cotton see classification on Textiles and 
Clothing also Paper in this classification. 



FLAX — HEMP — RUBBER 53 

(b) Flax 

268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 

269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. 

40 Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, N. Y. 
See also Paper in this classification. 

(c) Hemp 

Manila (Abaca — native name) 

552 Manila hemp — stripping the tree. 

553 Primitive way of making hemp rope, Philippines. 

Sisal 
289 Henequen, from which sisal fiber is produced. 
571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 
357, 136 Show use of binder twine, made of sisal fiber in handling 
grain. 

(d) Maguey 

285, 287 Show the maguey plant whose fiber is often used for the 
manufacture of clothing as well as twine rope, mats, sacks, 
carpets, etc. The tender heart of the plant can be cooked 
and eaten. 

(e) Pina 

108 Pineapple leaves from which pina cloth is made. 

550 Philippines wearing pina cloth. 

(f) Bark Cloth 

570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 

(g) Coconut Fiber 

551 Coconut husk fiber for making cloth, mats, etc. 

(h) Rubber 

Sources 

247 A rubber tree showing scars from cutting. 

131 Many forms of crude rubber as it comes from the jungles. 

Manufacture 

133 Manufacture of rubber boots and shoes, Akron, Ohio. 

Uses 

46,42,227,130,161,75 Rubber in boots. 

See also Automobiles in this classification. 



54 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

2. ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORY PROCESSES 

(a) Wool 

Sheep Raising 
480 Merino sheep on the Argive plains in Greece. 
173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep are better mutton type, 

being larger than the Merino, but the wool is coarser. 
190 Fine wool Merino sheep, Idaho. (Typical range sheep the world 

over.) 
589 Sheep on the range, Australia. 

Handling of Wool 
145 Shearing sheep with power driven shears. 

17 Sorting wool after cleaning and washing. 

Modern Manufacturing Processes 

18 Doubling frame in large woolen mill. 

81 Spinning room — winding the bobbins, Phila. 

Primitive Processes 
409 Carding and spinning wool, Telemarken, Norway. 
506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. 

Uses 
For use of wool in clothing see classification Textiles and Clothing. 

(b) Silk 

Silk Culture (Japan) 

536 Silk worm incubator. 

537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silk worms. 

538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the voracious young silk worms. 

539 Silk worm cocoons in their nests. 

Silk Manufacture (Japan) 

540 Reeling silks from cocoons by hand. 

541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants. 

Silk Manufacture (America) 

22 Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins, South Manchester, Conn. 

The United States buys approximately one-half the raw silk pro- 
duced by Japan each year. We also buy heavily from China and 
Italy. Most of this silk comes to us as reeled silk. 

23 First drawing or straightening of fibers — spun silk industry. 

South Manchester, Conn. This silk comes from damaged co- 
coons and is carded and spun in practically the same way as 
cotton and wool. 

24 Roving frame — silk industry (spun silk), South Manchester, 

Conn. 



SILK — LEATHER 55 

53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth, Paterson, N. J. (Reeled 

silk). 

54 Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 

55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, 

N. J. For uses of silk in clothing see classification Textiles 
and Clothing. 



(c) Leather 

Sources 
127 " Making a drive " on Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 
186 Round up on Sherman Ranch, Kansas. 
301 Cattle ranch in Jamaica. 
317 Some of South America's famous cattle. 
185 Splendid Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens. 
140 World's greatest live stock market, Chicago. 
549,491,474 Buffalo, a source of leather. 
562, 548 Humped cattle of Asia. 
71, 138, 218, 229, 195, 188, 182, 147, 136 Horses. 
183, 172, 122 Pig skin a good leather. 
560, 566, 567, 574, 557, 340, 524 Donkeys. 
124,249,175,311,294 Mule skin an excellent leather. 
190, 173, 480 Sheep skin much used for gloves, etc. 
246, 279, 118, 190, 204, 396, 480 Dog skin used in many ways. 
411,447 Goats; 413 Reindeer; 2 Moose; 189 Elk; 335 Llama; 232 

American Bison; 110 Alligator; 588 Kangaroo; 345 Seal; 505, 

509 Elephants ; 577, 578 Hippopotamus. 



Manufacture. 
272 Scraping hair from hides — tanning industry. 

11 Skilled workmen cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 
41 Sewing room, large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 

12 Lasting machine, shaping shoes in Massachusetts shoe factory. 



Uses 
71, 138 Harness, a very important use of leather. 
45, 14 Leather is also extensively used for belting. 
98, 158, 182, 168, 169 Indians wearing " Buckskin " garments. 

279, 413, 188, 224, 83, 77 Leather boots and shoes. 

352, 89, 92 Leather upholstering. 

188, 186, 182 Hog skin the usual leather for saddles. 

507 Primitive use of inflated bullock skins for ferry boats. 

285 Primitive use of hog skin to carry liquids. 



56 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

(d) Furs 

345 The seal, an important source of fur clothing. 

343 The use of fur garments by the Eskimo. 

328, 158 Indians using furs for clothing. 

246, 243, 279 Use of fur caps and clothing, Arctic regions. 

(e) Feathers 

239 The ostriches supply beautiful ostrich plumes. 
216 These geese furnish valuable feathers. 



C. MINING AND MINERAL INDUSTRIES 

1. ORGANIC DEPOSITS 

(a) Anthracite Coal 

74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 

75 Miners going into the slope, Hazelton, Pa. 

76 Miner drilling and laborer loading " black diamonds." 

77 Loading cage with car at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 

78 Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 

79 Shipping coal, coal breaker in background, Ashley, Pa. 

(b) Bituminous Coal 

129 A trainload of bituminous coal from the Pittsburgh fields for 
Lake Superior consumption. 

61 Coal on barges ready for river shipment. Pittsburgh, Pa., is 

sometimes called the Smoky City on account of the large amount 
of coal smoke from the various iron and steel mills and other 
great factories located there. 
177 Bituminous coal used in threshing engine. 

43, 26, 347 Bituminous coal used in passenger and freight engines and 
ships. 

(c) Coke (Made from Bituminous Coal) 

68 Coke ovens, loading coke into cars. 

62 Two cars of coke at blast furnace. 

(d) Peat (Irish Coal) 

378 Peat from Irish bog3, High St., Killarney, Ireland. 

(e) Petroleum 

122 Spindle Top, an important oil region near Beaumont, Texas. 

69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin for shooting the well. 

70 Shooting an oil well. 

123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Port Arthur, Texas. 

256 A reserve supply of the finished product in tank at the Panama 
Canal. 



METALS 57 

(f) Phosphate 

115 Mining phosphate and loading cars, Tenn. — an important fer- 
tilizer. 



2. INORGANIC DEPOSITS AND INDUSTRIES 

(a) METALS 

(i) Iron 

163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. 

164 Iron ore being loaded on ships, Two Harbors, Minn. 
154 Ore ships passing through " Soo " Canal. 

128 Unloading iron ore from ships to train for Pittsburgh District. 
(129 shows train load of coal which the ore ships will haul back 
to Minnesota.) 

62 Iron blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 

63 Modern pig iron machine at rest, Pittsburgh. 

64 Emptying cooled pig iron from molds into car. 

Uses 

271 Iron pipe; 350, 354, 534, 306, 365 Iron fencing; 484 Iron roof; 
63, 64 Cast iron molds; 215, 471 Iron chains. 

(2) Steel 

116 Steel fuinace, Birmingham, Ala. 

61 Across tie Monongahela River may be seen a steel plant in 
Pittsburgh. 

65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh. 

66 Steel ingots on the " table " of the " blooming " mill, steel 

works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

67 Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into lengths by 

buzz saw, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Uses 

82 Erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive works. 

43 Two locomotives and a modern four track steel railway. 
242 Steel in submarine; 254 battleship; 27, 174, 575 bridges; 139. 25, 
26, 28, 30 skyscrapers; 1 axe; 224 saw; 69 drill; 256 wireless 
tower; 123 tanks; 170 power plant; 187 factory; 150, 151. 316, 
305, 152 automobiles; 250, 252, 253 Panama Canal; 52 steam 
ships; 161, 166, 178, 179, 180 farm machinery and gas engines; 
129, 128, 163 steel cars; 154, 164 freight boats; 177, 218 233 
threshing engines ; 84, 94 money making machines. For other 
uses of steel see classification on Metals. 



58 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

(3) Copper 

187 Copper smelters and mines, Butte, Mont. 

155 A mile underground — loading and handling cars with copper 

ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 

156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet, Mich. 

157 Loading 1,400 tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. 

Uses. 
15 Copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Lawrence, Mass. 
151 Insulated copper wires used in auto engines. 324, 486, 273, 590 

show trolley wires of copper. 
308, 309 Show S3 r stem of telephone wires, often of copper, especially 

the long-distance wires. 
43 Showing copper telegraph wires. 
171 Commutator plates in generators are copper. 

• (4) Brass (Product of Copper) 

92,84,89,21,352 Brass lighting fixtures; 88, 92, 94 Brass fans; 494 
Brass in rifle shells; 39, 37, 73 Cannon were formerly made of 
brass. 

(5) Bronze (Product of Copper) 
80 The old Liberty Bell. Most famous in world. 
484 The great bell market, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. 
241 San Gabriel mission showing bells. 

(6) Gold 

243 Some of the 40,000 men who entered Klondyke gold field in 
1898. 

246 Gold miners and dog team north of Arctic Circle, Alaska. 

245 Placer mining, near the Yukon River, Alaska. 

225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 

287 Rich gold and silver mining center, El Oro, Mexico. 

579 Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet under ground, Robin- 
son Mine, Johannesburg, S. Africa. 

203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. 

Uses 
21 Skilled workers manufacturing jewelry, Providence, R. I. 

(7) Silver 

214 A silver mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. 
287 Rich gold and silver mining center of El Oro, Mexico. 
334 Refining silver in smelter, Peru, S. Amer. 

Uses 
33 Silverware in a well furnished dining room. 

84 Silver half-dollars, quarters and dimes being coined at govern- 
ment mint 



PRECIOUS STONES — QUARRYING 59 

(8) Zinc and Lead 

176 Zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. 

(bj PRECIOUS STONES 
(i) Diamonds 

581 Mining " diamantif erous blue earth," Kimberley, S. Africa. 

(2) Garnets, Rubies, Sapphires and Moonstones 

512 Grinding gems — garnets, rubies, sapphires, and moonstones — 
Ratnapora, Ceylon. 

(c) GLASS 
Manufacture 

134 Placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Rossford, Ohio. 

135 Polishing plate glass alter grinding, Kosstord, Ohio. 

Use 

33 Cut glass on dining table, plate glass in mirror and mantel. 

y2 Glass in transom, lighting hxtures, ink wells, mirror, clock face 

and covering picture. 
88 Glass in skylight. 
587 Plate glass in Pederal building, Melbourne, Australia. 
159 Glass windows in modern dairy barn. 

152 A well lighted modern factory building, Ford Motor Factory 
Detroit. 

(d) POTTERY 

58 Firing tableware, Trenton, N. J. 

59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 
33 Finely decorated china on dining table. 

372 Porcelain in Robert Burns' Cottage, Scotland. 

542, 487, 572, 5t>4, 292 Primitive pottery in other countries. 

519 Chinese dishes. 

(e) QUARRYING 

(1) Granite 

3 Quarrying granite, Concord, N. H. — drilling preparatory to 

splitting. 
95 Congressional Library — white New Hampshire granite. 
7 Quincy market building, Boston, built of granite. 
6 Granite blocks used in paving. 
569 The great dam, Egypt. Built of Assuan granite. 
146 Lincoln Tomb ^granite), Springheld, 111. 

(2) Marble 

4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt, largest quarry opening in the 

world. 

5 Chiseling marble, Proctor, Vt. 



60 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

87 The extensions of the Capitol building are of Massachusetts 

marble. 
36 Many marble monuments may be seen here. 

(f) NITRATE 
325 Sacking and shipping nitrate at mines, Chile. 

3. LUMBERING AND FOREST PRODUCTS 

(a) Lumbering 

America 
224 Felling great trees that grow in the rainy northwest. 
162 Load of logs at Kettle River landing, Minn. 
1 Landing and scaling logs, Aroostook Woods, Me. 

215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Washington. 

216 Large lumber mills, near Seattle, Wash. 

217 Loading ships with lumber. 

Orient 
509 Elephants hauling logs from Salwin River, Burma. 
523 Chinamen sawing timbers in primitive way. 
For uses of lumber see classification on Wood. 

(b) Turpentine 

107 Turpentine dippers and chippers at work, Savannah, Ga. 

106 Savannah, Ga. Greatest rosin and turpentine market in world. 

(c) Manufacture of Paper 

For manufacture of paper from wood pulp, cloth and rice straw 
see Paper under Miscellaneous Industries, this classification. 

(d) Charcoal 

103 Burning charcoal, N. C. 
543 Selling charcoal in Korea. 

For further material on forest products and their uses see classifi- 
cation on Wood. 

4. MISCELLANEOUS 
(a) Haying 

183 Alfalfa, principal hay and forage crop of West. 

181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader. 

232 American bison eating hay in park. 

388 Making hay, Highlands of Bavaria. 

408 Hay put up in racks to cure. 

454 A unique team eating hay, Naples, Italy. 



MAKING PAPER — TOBACCO — IRRIGATION 61 

(b) Ivory 

505, 509, 510 Elephants showing ivory tusks. 

573 Shipping ivory at Mombaso, Africa. 

577, 578 Ivory of hippopotamus inferior to that of elephant. 

(c) Making Paper 

Wood 
1 Printing and wrapping paper are mainly made from wood pulp. 
Timber suitable for paper pulp is fast disappearing in the 
United States. Much paper pulp is imported from Canada. 
412 Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp for the 
manufacture of paper, Norway. 

Cloth (Cotton and Linen') 

19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums, paper mills, 

Holyoke, Mass. 

20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 

94 Paper money from linen rags — the toughest and most durable 
paper made in America. 

Rice Straw 
533, 534, 535, 536 Show rice paper used extensively by Japanese in 
the walls and windows of their homes. 

(d) Making Money 

84 Coining presses, Government, Philadelphia, Pa. 
94 Numbering, seal printing and separating paper money, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

(e) Tobacco 

112 Kentucky tobacco field showing ventilated tobacco barns. 
297 Cutting tobacco in Cuba. 

(f) Irrigation 

Irrigation is not a distinct industry. But because of popular inter- 
est in this method of production this grouping is supplied. 

210 Great Roosevelt irrigation dam, Phoenix, Ariz. 

209 Results of irrigation, Salt River Valley, Arizona. 

104 Flooding the rice fields, S. C. 

237 Irrigating endless avenues of orange trees, Cal. 

238 Orange blossoms and fruit, irrigated, Cal. 
236 What irrigation does for Tokay grapes, Cal. 
284 Irrigation makes good farm land in Mexico. 

332 Preparing soil for planting, irrigated district, Peru. 

333 Replanting sugar cane preparatory to irrigation, Peru. 
549 Filipino harrowing rice field after irrigation. 
528,529,530 Irrigated rice fields, Japan. 

515 Irrigated land in China. 



62 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

569 The great Nile Dam for irrigation purposes. 
564 Land irrigated by overflow of Nile River, Egypt. 
563 Cotton raised on irrigated land, Egypt. 

(g) Rubber 

247 Rubber tree showing scars from cutting, Panama. 

131 Crude rubber from the jungles, Akron, O. 

132 Building up an automobile tire, Akron, O. 
155,44 Rubber hose. 

See also Rubber under Clothing in this classification. 

(h) Automobiles 

150 Assembling room, Cadillac plant, Detroit, Mich. 

151 Experts testing motors, Cadillac plant, Detroit, Mich. 

152 Employees leaving Ford plant, Detroit, Mich. 
109, 167, 305, 229, 308, 315, 316 Automobiles in use. 

For manufacture of Automobile tires see Rubber above. 

(i) Construction 

For a considerable range of industries dealing with the construc- 
tion of highways, streets, bridges, canals, etc., see Part II of this 
classification, also Cities and the various classifications under Industrial 
Arts. 

See classification on Transportation. 

See classification on Markets and Marketing. 

Part II 

In the following scheme, the character of the work itself is made the 
basis for an economic classification of industries and products. 

A. COLLECTIVE INDUSTRIES 

These industries do not create anything which did not exist be- 
fore, but collect raw materials, making only such changes in their 
form or qualities as are necessary to fit them for transportation and 
market. They may be carried on by primitive peoples and by the use 
of simple means or they may demand complex machinery and the 
exercise of the highest scientific skill. 

1. PRIMITIVE 
(a) Plucking 
551 Husking coconuts, Island of Luzon, P. I. 
259 Luxuriant vegetation in the Mauna Loa Valley, Hawaii. 
294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. 
303 Cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. 



FISHING — HUNTING — MINING 63 

(b) Fishing 

226 Salmon industry, Columbia River, Ore. 

227 Interior of a salmon canning establishment, Ore. 
244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 

481 Fishwives of Finland — a busy scene on the quay. 

531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. 

13 Drying codfish in the sun — Gloucester, Mass. 

97 Oyster shells as bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 

86 " Shucking " oysters, Oyster House, Baltimore, Md. 

415 Floating whale station, Spitzenbcrgen, Lapland. (Whales usually 

but incorrectly called fish.) 

Ill Sponge market, Key West, Harbor, Fla. 

(c) Hunting 

2 Flashlight of wild moose in Maine forest. 
72 Woodcock on nest. 

577 Hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 

578 Returning from a big game hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 

345 Commander Adrien de Gerlache, leader of the Belgica expedi- 
tion (1897-99) on skis hunting seals on South Polar pack. 
110 Battle with a wounded 'gator, Palm Beach, Fla. 

2. SCIENTIFIC 

(a) Lumbering 

224 Method of felling trees, Oregon. 

162 A load of logs, Minnesota Pineries. 

1 Logs delivered at the stream, Me. 

215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Wash. 

216 Largest lumber mills, near Seattle, Wash. 

217 Shipping lumber, Washington. 

(b) Quarrying 

4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt. — largest quarry opening in the 

world. 

3 Quarrying granite, Concord, N. H. 

5 Chiseling marble, Proctor, Vt. 

(c) Mining 

Coal 

74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 

75 Miners going into the slope, Hazelton, Pa. 

76 Drilling and loading anthracite, Scranton, Pa. 

77 Loaded cage at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 

78 Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 

79 Shipping coal — coal breaker in background. 



64 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

Petroleum 

69 Filling shell with nitroglycerin. 

70 Shooting oil well with eighty quarts of nitro-glycerin, Pa. 

122 Spindle Top oil region, Texas. 

123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Texas. 

Iron 

163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. 

Copper, Zinc and Lead 

155 A mile underground — cars with copper ore,Mich. 
176 Zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. 

Gold and Silver 

245 Placer mining near the Yukon River, Alaska. 
225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 

579 Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet under ground, Jo- 
hannesburg, South Africa. 
334 Refining silver in smelter, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. 
214 A mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. 

Diamonds 

581 Taking out the " diamantiferous blue earth " at Wesselton dia- 
mond mines, Kimberley, South Africa. 

Phosphate 

115 Mining phosphate near Columbia, Tenn. 

Nitrate 

325 Sacking and shipping nitrate at mines, Chile. 

(d) Collecting 

130 Tapping a sugar-maple tree, Ohio. 

107 A turpentine farm — dippers and chippers at work, Savannah, 

Ga. 
247 Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting, Panama. 

131 Many forms of crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. 

285 Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant used in making 
pulque, the native drink, Tacuba, Mexico. 

B. PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRIES 

These industries assist nature to multiply or create materials which 
would not otherwise exist and are capable of a high degree of scien- 
tific development. 

1. AGRICULTURE 
(a) Garden Culture 
149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo, Mich. 
47 Harvesting cantaloupes near Buffalo, N. Y. 



GARDEN CULTURE — FIELD CULTURE 65 

83 School gardens, Philadelphia, Pa. 
235 Luther Burbank's spineless cactus, Santa Rosa, Cal. 

(b) Field Culture 

Grains 

561 Tilling the soil as in ancient days, Egypt. 

522 Chinese farmer boys plowing, near Port Arthur. 

488 How the Russian peasant tills his fields. 

178 Plowing with tractor, South Dakota. 

179 Harrowing with tractor, South Dakota. 

180 Manure spreader followed by tractor plowing sod near Omaha. 

Neb. 

357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. 

199 Barley raised by the " dry farming method." 

147 Loading oats in the field, 111. 

218 Combined reaper and thresher, Wash. 

233 Steam harvester, reaping, threshing and sacking wheat. 

497 The threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 

479 Treading out the grain, Greece. 

284 Rich farm lands in Mexico. 

177 Threshing wheat. North Dakota. 

184 Corn field, Kansas. 

160 Harvesting and loading silage corn, Wis. 

136 Modern methods in corn harvesting, Ind. 

137 Corn in the shock, Ind. 

549 Filipino farmers harrowing rice fields. 

528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 
527 Threshing out rice, Japan. 

529 Rice harvest, cutting with a sickle, Japan. 
105 Hoei g rice, South Carolina. 

104 Floo ing the rice fields, S. C. 

Sugar Beets 

198 Cultivating a field of beets, Colorado. 

419 Women working in a field of sugar beets, Sweden. 

Tobacco 

112 Tobacco field in Kentucky. 

297 Cutting tobacco grown in the shade of banana trees, province of 
Havana, Cuba. 

Peanuts 

118 Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Arkansas. 

Potatoes 

166 Potato digging machines, Moorhead, Minn. 



66 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

Hay 

181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader. 

(c) Plantation Culture 
Sugar Cane 

332 Preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 

333 Replanting the sugar cane, Peru. 
258 Cutting the sugar cane, Porto Rico. 

Fruits 
294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. 
108 Harvesting pineapples, Florida. 

Fibers 

117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 
289 Henequen producing sisal hemp fiber, Mex. 
571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 
552 Manila hemp, stripping the tree, P. I. 

(d) Horiculture 

44 Summer spraying in apple orchard, N. Y. 
175 Sorting and packing apples in barrels, Mo. 
85 Gathering peaches, Delaware. 

237 10,000 acres of orange groves, Cal. 

238 Orange blossoms and fruit, Los Angeles, Cal. 
437 Picking Valencia oranges, Spain. 

240 Picking olives, Cal. 

236 Tokay grapes, Acampo, Cal. 

390 Toiling in the vineyards, Rudesheim, Germany. 

319 Italian settler and family, vineyards in background, Mendoza, 

Argentina. 
234 Harvesting almonds, Cal. 

302 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 

530 A country girl of old Japan — among the famous tea fields of 
Shizuoka, Japan. 

303 Cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. 

(e) Herding — depends on native grasses, mosses, etc. 
Cattle 

127 On the Paloduro Ranch, Paloduro, Tex. 

186 Thrown ! Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. 

188 Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, Mont. 

301 A cattle ranch in Jamaica, B. W. I. 

317 Argentina's famous cattle, La Plata, Argentina, S. A. 

Sheep 
190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 
480 Shepherds and their flocks, Greece. 
589 Sheep on range, Australia. 



STOCK RAISING 67 

Reindeer 

413 Laplanders milking the reindeer, Norway. 

(f) Stock Raising 

Stock raising is combined with agriculture and depends on 
home-grown grain and fodder. 

Cattle 

364 Jersey cattle. 

371 Ayrshire dairy cattle, Scotland. 

403 Milking Holstein-Friesian cattle, Holland. 

159 Modern dairy barns and Holstein cattle, Wisconsin. 

57 Milking scene in modern dairy, New Jersey. 

358 Whitefaced Herefords. 

370 Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle. 

183 Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens. 

140 The world's greatest live stock market, Chicago. 

Swine 

172 Hogs in rape pasture, Iowa. 

183 Hogs in rich alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 

Sheep and Goats 

173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep. 

411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. 
447 Grindelwald on market day, Switzerland. 

Horses 

138 A champion team of Percheron draft horses. 
398 Belgian draft horses. 

Elephants 

509 Elephants hauling logs from river, Burma. 
505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 

510 An elephant hunt, Siam. 

Birds 

56 1,500 Hens (White Leghorns) in laying house, New Jersey. 
239 Cawston ostrich farm, California. 

Silkworms 

537 Gathering mulberry leaves for silk worms, Japan. 
536 Silk worm incubator, Japan. 

538 Feeding mulberry leaves to silk worms. Japan. 

539 Silk worm cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. 

C. CONSTRUCTIVE INDUSTRIES 

These industries use all sorts of materials supplied by the collec- 
tive and productive industries in the construction of things which are 
largely artificial. 



68 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 



1. MANUFACTURING 

The United States Census publishes statistics of 259 distinct lines 
of manufacture and the number of different kinds of articles pro- 
duced runs into the tens of thousands. 

(a) Foodstuffs 

292 Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A. 

498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine. 

410 " Flat Bread " of the Norwegian Peasant. 

45 1,000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, N. Y. 

270 Beets stored in sheds at sugar factory. 

271 Beet pulp and juice for manufacturing sugar. 

34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar. 

35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 

141 Dressing beef — washing with boiling water. 

143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling. 

142 Splitting backbones and inspection of hogs. 

144 Making link sausages. 

(b) Fibers and Textiles 
For more complete list see Clothing in this chapter, also classification 
on Textiles and Clothing. 

Cotton 

563 Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 

286 Carding room, cotton mills, Mexico. 

14 Spinning cotton yarn, Lawrence, Mass. 

15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Law- 

rence, Mass. 

16 Printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. 

Linen 

268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 

269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. 

Wool 

17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Mass. 

409 Carding and spinning wool, Norway. 
506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. 
81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

18 Doubling frame in a large woolen mill. 

Silk 

540 Reeling silk from cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. 

22 Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins, Conn. 

23 First drawing of fibers, Conn. 

24 Spinning — silk industry, Conn. 



BARK — COPPER AND GOLD — JEWELRY 69 

53 Drawing warp, silk mills, Paterson, N. J. 

54 Weaving room, silk mills, Paterson, N. J. 

55 Machine weaving taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N. J. 
541 One of Japan's largest silk mills. 

Bark 

570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 

Cordage 

553 Manila hemp rope factory, Philippines. 

(c) Leather Boots and Shoes 

272 Scraping the hair from the hides, Canada. 

11 Skilled workmen cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 

12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, Mass. 

41 Sewing room — large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 

(d) Fuel 

103 Burning charcoal, North Carolina. 
68 Making coke from bituminous coal, Connellsville, Pa. 

(e) Iron and Steel 

62 Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
116 Steel furnace, Birmingham, Ala. 

63 Modern pig iron machine, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

64 Emptying pig iron from molds into car, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

66 Steel ingot on the "table" of the "blooming" mill, Pittsburgh, 

Pa. 

67 Red-hot steel beam being cut into lengths by buzz saw, Pitts- 

burgh, Pa. 

(f) Copper and Gold 
187 Copper smelters and mine, Butte, Mont. 
156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Mich. 
203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Colorado. 
84 Coining presses, Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. 

(g) Jewelry 
21 Manufacturing jewelry, Providence, R. I. 
512 Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, sapphires and moonstones, Ratna- 
pora, Ceylon. 

(h) Salt 

42 Solar method of evaporating salt brine — collecting, draining 

and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 
153 Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair. Mich. 



70 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 

(i) Glass and Pottery 

134 Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Ross- 

ford, O. 

135 Polishing plate glass after grinding, Rossford, Ohio. 

58 Firing tableware, Trenton, N. J. 

59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 
385 Pottery market, Coblenz, Germany. 

(j) Machinery 
156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla Mines, 

Calumet, Mich. 
151 Experts testing engines in the Cadillac automobile plant, Detroit, 

Mich. 
82 General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

(k) Wood Pulp and Paper 
412 Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp, paper mills, 
Skotifos, Norway. 

19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums — paper mills, 

Holyoke, Mass. 

20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 

94 Numbering, seal printing and separating paper money, Bureau of 
Printing and Engraving, Washington, D. C. 

2. BUILDING 

Consists in the erection of large, permanent structures such as houses, 
ships, bridges, etc. A great variety of materials is used and work- 
men of many trades are employed, as masons, carpenters, painters, 
plumbers, etc. 

3. ENGINEERING 

The most complex and technical of all industries, has many branches, 
closely related to manufacture and building. It plans and constructs 
engines, machinery, power plants, mills, water works, dams, bridges, 
tunnels, irrigation, drainage and sewer system, roads, docks, canals and 
the very largest works of human design. By means of engineering, 
the great powers of nature, heat, water, wind and electricity are 
brought into the service of man. 

(a) Architecture 

(See classification on Architecture) 

(b) Shipbuilding 

52 Great ocean liners at the docks, Hoboken, N. J. 
100 Warships in Hampton Roads, Va. 



DAMS — BRIDGES — ROADS — CANALS 7 1 

242 Submarines, battleships and torpedo boats, San Diego Bay, Cal. 

280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 

314 Entrance to the harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 

511 Colombo Harbor from landing jetty, Ceylon. 

(c) Dams and Power Plants 

148 Building dikes, East St. Louis, 111. 

170 Power dam and locks in Mississippi River, Keokuk, Iowa. 

171 Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied with power from the 

great dam at Keokuk, Iowa. 
210 Roosevelt irrigation dam near Phoenix, Ariz. 
569 Irrigation dam, Assuan, Egypt. 

(d) Bridges 

27 The great Brooklyn bridge, New York. 

101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 

174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 

348 London Bridge over the Thames, England. 

366 Great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 

379 Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 

391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany. 

392 Bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 
442 The Kapellbrucke, Lucerne, Switzerland. 

456 The Vecchio Bridge across River Arno, Florence, Italy. 

470 Railway bridge over the Danube, Czernavoda, Roumania. 

500 The Howrah bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta. 

575 Bridge near Victoria Falls, Africa. 

(e) Roads 

31 Many forms of transportation required in large centers of popula 
tion, New York City. 

43 Four track railway, electric road, and Erie Canal. 

71 Conestoga wagon on good dirt road. 
330 Cofa Bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 
440 To the Clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 

(f) Canals 

48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. 

154 Greatest canal traffic in the world, the " Soo " Canal. 

250 Excavating at site of Gatun Locks, Panama. 

251 Excavations measuring 500 feet deep in Gaillard Cut, Panama. 

252 North over Gatun Locks, Panama. 

253 South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, Panama. 

254 U. S. S. Missouri in the Panama Canal. 

256 At the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 



72 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING ■ 

293 Part of the proposed Nicaragua Canal route. 

457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 

462 Danube Canal in the very heart of Vienna. 

559 The Suez Canal from a German liner. 

(g) Docks 

106 Along the wharf of Savannah River, Ga. 
128 Unloaders at work on ore docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 
164 Looking between ore docks # 2 and # 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 
174 Docks on the Mississippi River at St. Louis. 
267 The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 
347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. 
400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam, Holland. 
420 Custom House scene and harbor, Goteborg, Sweden. 
429 The Cathedral, near busy docks, Marseilles, France. 
433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, looking towards the Colum- 
bus monument and Custom House, Spain. 
556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. 

For more complete list see Harbors in Transportation classification, 
also Markets and Marketing classification. 



D. DISTRIBUTIVE INDUSTRIES 

These industries are concerned with the circulation or movement 
of people, goods, and ideas. They are dealt with in the chapters on 
Transportation and Markets and Marketing. 



4. TRANSPORTATION 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
By EMERY R. JOHNSON, Ph.D., Sc.D. 

DEAN AND PROFESSOR OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE, 
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 

By means of transportation men secure the necessities of 
life from the farmers, manufacturers and other producers. 
Goods become useful to those who need them after they have 
been carried from the producer or makers to those who use 
the articles. In different countries and different parts of the 
world various methods of moving goods from place to place 
are employed. There is still a surprising amount of carrying 
done by men and women and beasts of burden without the 
use of any kind of a vehicle. In those countries where the 
people have enough wealth to enable them to use vehicles, many 
varieties of mechanical instruments of transportation have 
been devised. Less advanced people use simple two-wheeled 
carts drawn by one or more horses or mules, or sometimes by 
cattle, water buffalo, camels, dogs or reindeer. Each country 
uses draft animals that can live and flourish in the particular 
country in question. 

I. HUMAN CARRIERS 

We who live in the United States have become so accustomed to 
passenger and freight trains, auto trucks, automobiles, dray wagons and 
comfortable carriages that we have some difficulty in realizing that 
there are people in Asia, Africa, and the Philippine Islands who depend 
upon their own muscular strength for transportation and travel; but 
if we were to visit Korea we would see men carrying heavy burdens on 
their back, as is shown by the view (543) of the charcoal carriers, or 
if we were to visit Porto Rico (view 257) we would see women car- 
rying on their heads packages weighing as much as possibly 50 lbs. 
It is only when we go on camping trips to fish or to climb mountains 
that we resort to " packing," but in some countries this is the regular 
method of transporting articles. 

73 



74 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 

A. Burdens Borne on Head 

257 Porto Rico woman carrying burden on the head. 
437 Carrying basket of oranges near Valencia, Spain. 
542 Korean carrying earthen vessel on head. 

564 Egyptian carrying water jar on head. 

572 South African natives carrying baskets on head. 

578 African natives carrying burdens on head. 

504 Natives carrying water jars on head, Jaipur, India. 

B. Burdens Borne on Back 

243 Miners carrying supplies on back over Chilcoot Pass. 

328 Indians carrying children on back, Chile. 

449 Carrying goods up mountain trails, Switzerland. 

532 534 Japanese mother carrying child on back. 

542 White robed pottery peddler, Seoul, Chosen. 

543 Koreans carrying charcoal on back. 

530 Japanese carrying basket of tea leaves. 

C. Burdens Borne on Shoulders 

108 Carrying baskets of pineapples on shoulders, Florida. 

175 Carrying basket of apples on shoulder, Missouri. 

266 Fifth Royal Highlanders carrying rifles on shoulder. 

487 Dairy maids carrying milk on shoulder, Kief, Russia. 

494 Arab carrying gun on shoulder. 

502 Skins filled with water swung from shoulder, Agra, India. 

513 521 Chinese carrying burdens on shoulder. 

D. Burdens Borne by Hand 

46 Carrying box of milk bottles. 

69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin. 

182 Mounted Sioux Indians carrying spears and guns. 

258 Cutting and carrying sugar cane, Porto Rico. 
516 Chinese pulling huge stone roller, Nanking. 

531 Japanese carrying tray of sardines. 

544 Russian traveler carrying baggage in hand. 
555 Arab carrying water, Tangier, Morocco. 



II. TRANSPORTATION BY ANIMALS 

In countries where there are only trails instead of roads, articles have 
to be transported by human carriers or by pack animals. As is shown 
by the views, different countries use different kinds of animals for beasts 
of burden. Not only horses and mules, but also cattle, elephants and 
camels have their " packing " to do. 

In large cities, automobiles and electric cars now do most of the 



TRANSPORTATION BY ANIMALS — HORSES 75 

work that was formerly performed by horses, and to an increasing extent 
farmers as well as miners and lumbermen are using the automobile en- 
gine instead of the mule or horse to haul and carry commodities ; but, 
for the most part, the farmer still uses the horse or mule to haul his 
wagon and to do the hard work of farming. The different kinds of carts 
and wagons used in different countries and the various kinds of sad- 
dle and draft animals are well illustrated by the views listed in the 
following classification. 

A. Horses 

Horseback 

182 Mounted Sioux Indians leaving camp, Nebraska. 

193 Mounted guard, Yellowstone National Park. 

186 Cowboys rounding up cattle, Kansas. 

188 Cowboys roping their mounts, Montana. 

204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. 

333 Inspecting sugar cane plantation near Lima, Peru. 

464 Mounted officer, Andrassy Strasse, Budapest. 

496 Horseman on Jericho road, Palestine. 

494 A sheik and his body guard, Syria. 

Horses zvith Wagons 

7 Market and delivery wagons about Boston Market, Mass. 

42 Hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 

47 Loading cantaloupes near Buffalo. 

71 Wagon that carried ammunition to Perry, 1813. 

138 Champion team of Percheron draft horses. 

147 Hauling oats, Illinois. 

149 Hauling celery, Kalamazoo, Mich. 

177 Hauling grain to thresher, North Dakota. 

181 Hauling hay near Lincoln, Nebraska. 

484 Great bell market, Nizhni, Novgorod, Russia. 

Horses with Farm Machinery. 

44 Summer spraying in apple orchard. 

136 Modern methods in corn harvesting, Ind. 

160 Harvesting and loading silage corn, Wis. 

166 Potato digging machines at work, Minn. 

180 Manure spreader followed by tractor, Nebr. 

198 Cultivating field of sugar beets, Colo. 

218 Twenty horses pulling combined reaper and thresher 

357 Harvesting wheat in old England. 

488 Plowing with primitive native plow, Russia. 

Horses zvith Carriages 
312 Carriage team, Montevideo, S. A. 
320 High wheeled cart and gig, Argentina. 
349 Hansom cabs, London, England. 



76 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 

383 Cab drivers, Berlin. 

424 Carriages, Paris, France. 

547 Calle Real, principal street of walled city, Manila. 

560 Carriages on great Nile bridge, Egypt. 



Horses with Sleigh 
162 Hauling logs in Minnesota. 

Horses Draiving Fish Nets 
226 Pulling salmon nets with horses, Columbia River. 

Horse as Pack Animal 
537 Gathering mulberry leaves in Japan. 

B. Donkeys 

340 Donkey used as saddle animal, Venezuela. 

341 City baker making his daily rounds, Caracas. 
378 Donkeys hauling peat, Killarney, Ireland. 

496 Russian pilgrims riding donkeys, Jericho road, Palestine. 
'522 Chinese plowing with donkeys. 

524 A donkey pack train, North China. 

557 Outside the fine old gate, Bab-el-Hathera, Tunis. 

560 Donkey pack animals on great Nile bridge. 
566. Tigran Bey on his mount, Sakkara, Egypt. 
567 The donkey as saddle animal, Thebes, Egypt. 

C. Mules 

124 Mule team hauling cotton. 

175 Hauling apples with Missouri mule team. 

249 The mule a good draft animal in warm countries. 

294 Mule used as pack animal, Costa Rica, C. A. 

311 Mules hauling coffee, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

438 Spanish mules hitched in tandem fashion. 

479 Primitive use of mule in Greece. 

D. Cattle 

Common Ox 

580 Oxen used to transport army supplies. South Africa. 

298 Cattle used for farming in Province of Havana, Cuba. 

561 Cattle plowing primitive way in Egypt. 

497 Oxen working on threshing floor, Nazareth, Palestine. 
454 Ox and horse hitched together, Naples, Italy. 



MULES — CATTLE — DOGS — CAMELS 77 



Buffalo 
549 Buffalo much used by the Filipino farmer. 
491 Shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus, Syria. 

Humped Cattle of Asia 
562 Humped cattle threshing beans, Egypt. 
548 Humped cattle as pack animals and for riding. 

Dairy. 
339 Native method of distributing milk unadulterated. 

E. Dogs 

246 Gold miners and dog team, Alaska. 
279 Eskimo dog team, Hopedale, Labrador. 
396 Dog drawing milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 

F. Camels 

565 A camel at the Sphinx, Egypt. 

564 Camel at the river Nile. 

567 Caravan leaving oasis, Egypt. 

504 Caravan entering Jaipur, India. 

518 Camel train in Peking, China. 

G. Llamas 

335 Llama used as beast of burden in South America. 



H. Elephants 

505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 

509 Elephants hauling teak logs, Burma. 

510 Elephant hunt, Siam. 

I. Reindeer 
413 Reindeer, much used as a draft animal. 

III. CANAL AND RIVER TRANSPORTATION 

A. Rafts 

Long before the railroad was invented, the rivers and canals were 
used for transporting freight and passengers. The lumberman floats 
his rafts of logs down the river in the spring when the streams are in 



78 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 

flood ; but in the eastern part of the United States and even on the 
Mississippi River there is little rafting at present as compared with the 
past; but one may still see (view 215) enormous rafts of logs on the 
Columbia River and on some other western waters. 

1 Logs delivered at the stream ready for'rafting, Me. 
215 Great chained log rafts on the Columbia River. 
507 Inflated bullock skins for rafts, Sutlej River, India. 

B. Row Boats, Canoes, and Yachts 

Row boats and canoes are, for most of us, at the present time, used 
only for pleasure or amusement. Our ancestors used them in their 
everyday business life, and the people of Giina and Japan still make 
large use of hand propelled boats for business purposes. 

169 Indian canoe. " From the wigwam he departed." 

326 Sailing boats and yachts, Valparaiso, Chile. 

430 Sailing boats and yachts, Cannes, France. 

457 Row boats and motor boats on Grand Canal, Venice. 

C. House Boats 

399 House boat on canal, Amsterdam, Holland. 

546 House boats on the Pasig River, Manila. 

457 House boat on Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 

514 Some of China's floating population, Canton, China. 

D. Canal Boats 

The slow-moving canal boat drawn by mules or horses may still 
be seen in many parts of the United States, but the mule and the tow- 
path and the small canal have about served their day. 

39 Canal barges on Hudson River. 

48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. 

E. Canals 

For the present and the future the large inland canal, like the Erie 
Canal connecting Albany with Buffalo, or an interoceanic canal like 
the one at Panama or the one at Suez, is the kind required for the 
work to be done. 

154 Greatest canal traffic in world, Mich. 

252 Atlantic entrance to Panama Canal. 

253 South over Gatun locks and Gatun Lake. 

254 U. S. S. Missouri passing through Panama Canal. 
256 Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 

399 A canal in Amsterdam. 



CANALS — RIVER STEAMERS — SAIL BOATS 79 

400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam, Holland, cargo of bricks. 

457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 

' 462 Along the Danube Canal, Vienna, Austria. 

559 The Suez Canal from a German liner, looking north. 

F. River Steamers and Barges 

The principal rivers of every country will always be great arteries 
of commerce. Fifty years ago the river steamboat was more largely 
used than it is today, because the railroad has taken over much of the 
work that the steamboat used to do. With the growth of population 
and with the increase in the amount of transportation work to be done, 
river steamboats and barges are again needed and we are seeing a re- 
vival of the use of the rivers as highways of commerce. 

61 River craft, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

119 Large river steamboats, New Orleans. 

267 River barges and ocean steamers at Montreal. 

429 Loaded barges, Marseilles, France. 

462 Along Danube Canal in Vienna. 

472 The famous Galata bridge, Constantinople. 

546 House boats on the Pasig River, Manila. 

G. Sail Boats on Rivers 

27 Sail boats under the great Brooklyn bridge, N. Y. 

39 Sail boats on Hudson River above West Point. 

106 Sail boats along the wharf of Savannah River. 

396 Antwerp, Belgium, sail boats it river wharves. 

H. Ferry Boats 

26 Ferry boat and water front of New York City. 
32 Ferry boat landing passengers, Ellis Island, N. Y. 
386 Ferry boats, Hamburg, Germany. 

I. River Highways of Commerce 

The views here listed of river steamboats and river highways give 
an excellent idea of the use and possibilities of river transportation. 

51 Palisades of the Hudson River, looking north. 

61 Confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 

120 In the Mississippi Delta at Head of Passes. 

170 Great Keokuk Power Dam and Locks in the Mississippi. 

264 St. Lawrence River from Dufferin Terrace, Quebec. 

174 Steamer and docks on Mississippi River at St. Louis. 

114 Tennessee River at Chattanooga. 

392 Great bridge over Rhine, Bonn, Germany. 

397 River Meuse, Namur, Belgium. 

467 Junction of Save River with the Danube. 



80 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 

471 On the bank of the Danube, Roumania. 

501 Pilgrims bathing in the sacred Ganges. 

517 China's great river Yangtze. 

564 Inundation of the Nile, Egypt. 

507 A primitive raft on Sutlej River, India. 

IV. LAKE TRANSPORTATION 

A. Steamers 

The United States and Canada have, in the five great lakes — Ontario, 
Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior — the longest and best lake high- 
way of the world. The traffic passing through Sault Ste. Marie Canal 
connecting Lake Huron with Lake Superior exceeds the traffic of any 
other canal in the world. 

48 Lake steamers at mouth of Erie Canal. 

164 Ore boats loading, Two Harbors, Minn. 

154 Passenger, freight and ore boats, " Soo " Canal. 

128 Lake steamers unloading at ore docks, Conneaut, O. 

459 Small passenger steamer on Lake Como, Italy. 

293 Steamer on Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua, C. A. 

B. Docks 

The freight steamers on the Great Lakes and the docks and other 
terminal facilities of the lake ports exceed in size and efficiency those of 
any other lakes in the world. 

48 Lake Erie docks at mouth of Erie Canal. 

128, 129 At work on the ore docks, Conneaut, O. 

157 Loading 1400 tons of copper, Houghton, Mich. 

164 Ore docks No. 2 and No. 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 

154 Locks and docks of " Soo " Canal. 

253 South over Gatun Lake, Panama Canal. 

459 Beautiful Lake Como and docks, Italy. 



V. OCEAN TRANSPORTATION 

A. Ports 

Most of us are more interested in the great ocean vessels and in the 
busy scenes about the wharves and docks at New York and other great 
ocean ports than we are even in railroads or in lake steamers. Ocean 
transportation is very well illustrated by the many views listed in the 
classification that follows. By studying these views, boys and girls 
who have never visited an ocean port may get a very good idea of ships 
and harbors and of the business of ocean transportation. 



PORTS — WHARVES AND DOCKS 81 

25 Statue of Liberty and New York Harbor. 

26 Ferry slips and water front of New York City. 

32 Immigrants landing from barge, Ellis Island, N. Y. 

52 Great ocean liners at docks, Hoboken, N. J. 

106 Along wharf of Savannah River, Savannah, Ga. 

248 City and Bay of Panama, from Ancon Hill. 

257 Overlooking harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 

277 Canadian Pacific station and dock, Vancouver, B. C. 

278 Harbor of St. John's, New Foundland. 
280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 
299 Santiago and harbor, Cuba. 

304 Lower city and harbor, Bahia, Brazil. 

314 Entrance to harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 

326 The harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 
374 Queenstown Harbor, Ireland. 

433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 
492 Bird's-eye view of Beirut, Syria. 
499 Madras and harbor, India. 
511 Colombo harbor from landing jetty, Ceylon. 
514 Harbor scene, Canton, China. 
556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. 
» 

B. Wharves and Docks 

52 Great ocean liners at Docks, Hoboken, N. J. 

267 The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 

277 Canadian Pacific terminal, Vancouver, B. C. 
280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 

295 Havana wharf, Cuba. Unloading coffee from Porto Rico. 

327 Goods arriving at docks for shipment, Valparaiso, Chile. 
347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. 

416 Wharves and warehouses, Stockholm, Sweden. 

420 Custom house scene and harbor of Goteborg, Sweden. 

C. Sailing Ships 

The sailing vessel which fifty years ago carried most of the freight 
that moved on the ocean is now used to a small extent as compared 
with steamers, but fishermen, lumbermen, and some others who "go 
down to the sea in ships " still find the sailing vessel very useful and 
well adapted to their needs. 

Ill Sail boats at Key West harbor. Florida. 

216 Sailing ships at mill for load of lumber. 

217 Shipping lumber, Washington. 

257 Sail boats at San Juan harbor, Porto Rico. 

278 Harbor of St. John's, N. F. 

295 Sail boats at Havana wharf, Cuba. 

342 Peary's ships, Windward and Eric, equipped with sails. 



82 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 

344 Belgica, Antarctic ship, equipped with sails. 

347 Sailing ship in Liverpool harbor, England. 

400 Sailboat with load of brick, Holland. 

473 Sailing ships at Constantinople. 

481 Fishwives of Finland — A busy scene on the quay. 

525 Small coastwise sailing vessels, Japan. 

D. Steamers 

26 Water front of New York City. 

52 Great ocean liners at docks, Hoboken, N. J. 

106 Along the wharf of Savannah River, Savannah, Ga. 

252 North over Gatun locks and canal. 

253 A busy scene on the Panama Canal. 

257 Overlooking harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 

267 Ocean liners, Montreal, Canada. 

277 Burrard inlet, Vancouver, B. C. 

280 Ocean freight steamer, Vera Cruz. 

314 Freight and passenger steamers, Buenos Aires. 

342 The twin ships, Windivard and Eric — Peary expedition. 

344 Hauling snow for water, Belgica Antarctic expedition. 

347 Landing stage Liverpool, England. 

374 Queenstown harbor, Ireland. 

415 Floating whale station, Spitzenbergen, Lapland. 

420 Harbor of enterprising city, Gothenburg, Sweden. 

433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 

492 Harbor of Beirut, Syria. 

499 Madras and harbor, India. 

511 Steam ships at anchor, Colombo harbor, Ceylon. 

514 Harbor of Canton, China. 

556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. Ocean steamers. 

559 German liner in Suez Canal. 

E. Battle ships, Submarines and Torpedo Boats 

100 U. S. Battleship fleet in Hampton Roads. 

254 U. S. S. Missouri, first battle ship through Panama Canal. 
242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battle ships. 



VI. RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION 

Every boy and girl is acquainted with the railroad, but not every 
one has seen how roads are built up high mountains or how railroad 
trains are carried on great bridges across broad rivers. Railroads are 
of many kinds and so are cars and trains. There is a different kind of 
car for each of the important kinds of traffic ; the refrigerator car to 
carry meat and fruit, the box car for ordinary freight, the tank car for 
oil, the hopper car for coal and ore. It would interest any boy or girl 
to make a study of the different kinds of vehicles used by the railroad 



BATTLE SHIPS — SUBMARINES — TRACKS 83 

and to point out how the growth of industries of different kinds has 
been made possible by the invention and use of special kinds of railway 
cars. The views here presented will help in making such a study. 

A. Tracks 

43 A busy path of commerce in central New York — four track rail- 
way, electric road at right, Erie Canal at extreme left. 

61 Pittsburgh, Pa., a busy railroad center. 

62 Railroad tracks by blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 
79 Shipping anthracite coal, Ashley, Pa. 

101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Train of coal cars. 

116 Railway tracks, Birmingham, Alabama. 

128, 129 Busy track scene, ore docks, Conneaut, O. 

163 Steam shovel at work, showing how track is laid. 

170 The great Keokuk power dam and locks. 

252, 253 Railroad tracks at Gatun locks, Panama Canal. 

251 Tracks used in removing dirt from Culebra Cut. 

256 Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 

267 Tracks on wharves, Montreal, Canada. 

277 Western terminus of Canadian Pacific R. R., Vancouver. 

323 Railway station, Juncal, Chile. 

325 At the nitrate mines, Chile. 

327 Busy dock scene, Valparaiso, Chile. 

420 Custom house scene and harbor, Goteborg, Sweden. 

330 Cofa bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 

440 To the clouds by rail, Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 

459 Inclined railway up the mountain, Como, Italy. 

499 Railway scene, Madras, India. 

544 Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 

556 Harbor and station of Algiers, Algeria. 

575 Cape to Cairo railway over Zambezi River, Africa. 

B. Locomotives 

82 Erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works. 

43 Four track railway in central New York. 

101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Freight engine. 

163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. 

330 Locomotive on the Oroya railway, Peru. 

575 Cape to Cairo railway, Africa. 

C. Bridges 

50 Steel arch bridge across Niagara River. 

61 Bridges across Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 

101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 

154 " Soo " Canal, Michigan, showing bridge in distance. 

174 The magnificent Eads bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 

330 Cofa bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 

366 The great Forth Bridge, Queensferry. Scotland. 



84 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 

470 The longest railway bridge in Europe. 
575 Bridge on the Cape to Cairo railway. 

D. Cars and Trains 

43 A busy path of commerce in central New York. 

62 Coke and iron ore cars at blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 

68 Loading coke into cars, Connellsville, Pa. 

79 Shipping coal, Ashley, Pa. 

101 Coal train, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 

115 Mining phosphate and loading cars, Tennessee. 

116 Birmingham, Ala. 50-ton hopper cars. 

128 50-ton hopper steel cars. 

129 Trainload of coal for Lake Superior consumption. 
157 Loading 1400 tons of copper, Houghton, Mich. 
163 Loading cars with iron ore, Minnesota. 

. 250, 252, 253 Show dirt cars, Panama Canal. 

251 Excavations in Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal. 

256 Freight cars at Pacific entrance, Panama Canal. 

267 Cars on the wharves, Montreal, Canada. 

277 Canadian Pacific station, Vancouver, B. C. 

323 Juncal station, Chile, S. A. 

327 Freight car at dock, Valparaiso, Chile. 

420 Cars at harbor to be loaded, Goteborg, Sweden. 

440 To the clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 

499 Madras railway terminal and harbor, India. 

544 Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 

556 Harbor and station of Algiers, Algeria. 

575 Train crossing bridge over Zambezi River, Africa. 

VII. URBAN TRANSPORTATION 
A. Elevated, Subway and Surface Lines 

In New York, London and a few other cities people travel on three 
l eve l s — on elevated trains, on the surface of the street, and in subways; 
and at one point in New York, the railroads have a tunnel under the 
subway, and thus people travel on four different levels. 

27 Street cars crossing the great Brooklyn Bridge. 

31 Many forms of transportation required in large cities. 

43 Interurban line at right of four track steam road. 

139 Street cars on State Street, Chicago. 

220 Second Avenue from Yester Way, Seattle, Wash. 

230 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal. 

273 Metropolis of western Canada — Main Street, Winnipeg. 

315 Street traffic, Buenos Aires, Argentina, S. A. 

380 Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland. 

416 Street car in Stockholm, Sweden. 

587 Federal Parliament building, Melbourne, Australia. 



BRIDGES — AUTOMOBILES 85 



B. Bridges 

The tunnels and the bridges required for the use of people who live 
in cities illustrate in a striking way how the genius of man made possi- 
ble the growth of great cities. 

27 The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 

50 Bridge across Niagara River. 

61 Confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 

101 Wagon and railway bridges, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 

348 London Bridge over the Thames River, England. 

391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany. 

392 The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 
397 River Meuse and Pare de la Citadel, Namur, Belgium. 
400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam. 

404 Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. 

423 Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, France. 

442 The Kapellbrucke crossing the River Reuss, Switzerland. 

451 Roman bridge over the Tiber River, Rome, Italy. 

456 The Vecchio Bridge across River Arno, Florence, Italy. 

472 The famous Galata Bridge, Constantinople, Turkey. 

500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta. 

546 Bridge across the Pasig River, Manila, P. I. 

560 The great Nile bridge, Cairo, Egypt. 



VIII. AUTOMOBILES 

The automobile is rapidly changing the conditions of life in the 
United States and many other countries. In hardly any large city of 
the world are the streets without automobiles. Even in Japan where 
the man-drawn carriage, the jinriksha, is still in use, one may find the 
automobile and the electric railway. When one realizes that the auto- 
mobile has been in use only a short time, one must conclude that it will 
not be many decades before the engine will displace muscular power 
as the motor force of the world. 

132 Building up automobile tire, Akron rubber plant. 

150 Assembling room, chassis ready for engines, Detroit. 

151 Experts testing engines, automobile plant, Detroit. 

152 Employees leaving Ford automobile factory, Detroit. 
229 Automobile trips are enjoyable. 

316 Four o'clock parade of society, Palermo Park, Buenos Aires. 

121 Automobile trucks necessary for quick delivery. 31 Automobiles in 
New York City; 8 Boston; 90 Washington; 109 St. Augustine; 
122 Beaumont, Texas; 126 San Antonio; 139 Chicago; 167 
Minneapolis; 220 Seattle; 230 San Francisco; 305 Rio de 
Janeiro; 308 Sao Paulo, Brazil; 315 Buenos Aires; 424 Paris. 



86 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 



IX. AIR CRAFT 

The gasoline engine has taken transportation into the air and we are 
seeing the organization and development of air craft of various kinds. 
There can be no more interesting study than to trace the growth of 
the methods of transportation. Our ancestors carried their burdens on 
their backs or heads ; their children used pack and draft animals ; we 
employ waterways, railroads, electric railways, automobiles, and aero- 
planes. Nor is the end yet. Our descendants will doubtless greatly 
improve upon our means of transportation. 

394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 



5. MARKETS AND MARKETING 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 

By J. PAUL GOODE, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 

A market is primarily a place where merchandise is ex- 
posed for sale. To this place comes the merchant with his 
wares, and the buyers with their wants. The most primitive 
example is the peddler with his pack, offering his goods for 
sale. Usually the market is located at a fixed place, like the 
town square or the temple grounds, and often is limited to a 
fixed day. Such primitive markets, where the producer sells 
direct to the consumer, are in evidence all the world round, 
even in the largest cities, where fruit or garden truck, or fish 
or flowers are on sale. 

With the development of modern transportation, such mar- 
kets tend to disappear, but some very old markets, like that at 
Nizhni Novgorod, are flourishing at the present day. 

An extension of the market idea has come into common 
use, where a locality or country is spoken of as a market for 
given supplies, for example when we say the corn belt is a 
market for labor-saving farm machinery, or China is a market 
for American cottons. 

The following stereographs will serve to illustrate various 
phases of markets and marketing. 

I. THE PRIMITIVE MARKET 

In the primitive market the producer meets the buyer, as on the city 
square. The wares are laid out on the ground, to be inspected and 
haggled for by the purchaser. 

572 The native market at Port Florence, Victoria Nyanza, Africa. 
555 The market place at Tangier, Morocco. 

387 Market place in the Cathedral square, Nuremberg, Germany. All 
Over the world the market place has most frequently been in the 
87 



88 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 

church or temple grounds, and when only occasional market 
times have been the rule, church days have been chosen. 

429 The cathedral and market, Marseilles, France. 

393 The market square, Cologne, Germany. 

7 Quincy Market, for fruit and truck, Boston, Massachusetts. 

447 Grindelwald on market-day, Switzerland. 

109 Old slave market, St. Augustine, Florida, reminding us of the 
days, not so long ago, when men and women were the com- 
modities to be bought and sold. 

484 The great bell market at the Fair, Nizhni Novgorod. This is an 

annual market, where the caravan trade of all Asia brings its 

wares to Western buyers. It is something like a world fair, 

with grounds set aside for the purpose, and now with many 

permanent buildings. 
339 Distributing milk, in the streets of La Guayra, Venezuela. A 

primitive method of bringing the commodity to the buyer. 
487 Milk maids delivering milk, Kief, Ukraine. 
396 Dogs and women bringing milk to market, Antwerp, Belgium. 
341 The city baker, selling his wares, Caracas, Venezuela. 
543 Charcoal peddlers, Korea. The charcoal may be carried from the 

mountain side many miles to the town, to be peddled to the 

consumer. 
378 Irish boys peddling peat on the streets of Killarney, Ireland. 

485 Market day, in the Jewish quarter of Warsaw, Poland. 
466 Market place, Serajevo, Bosnia. 

469 Market place in Rustchuk, Bulgaria. 

375 Street market, Cork, Ireland. Eggs and vegetables. 

438 Cart loads of Malaga grapes going to market at Almeria, Spain. 

395 In the vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. An example of a 

specialized market. 
423 Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, France. A market 

in one special commodity. 
405 A busy market square, Copenhagen, Denmark. 
481 A fish market on the quay in a Finland town. Fish is usually 

handled in a market devoted to sea food only. 



II. GREAT MARKET CENTERS 

Here extensive buying and selling are carried on, and goods ac- 
cumulated for the supply of wide tributary regions. The heart of 
every large city is developed as a market center, with extensive store 
buildings devoted to the accumulation and sale of a great variety of 
products. As a rule, transportation advantages play an important part 
in the growth of such cities, and usually a harbor and a navigable water- 
way into the hinterland, are of prime importance. In considerable meas- 
ure the population of such cities is made up of people who make their 
living in the manufacture, or purchase and sale, or transportation and 
warehousing of the goods handled in the market. 



GREAT MARKET CENTERS 89 

351 The Bank of England. For over a century the buildings seen here 
have been the financial market center of the world. The money 
market is the most specialized and most highly developed of all 
markets. 

29 Wall Street, New York City. The central money market of the 

New World, and since the Great War began, the market center 
of the world's finance. 
26 Waterfront of New York City. Most of the world's great cities 
are on navigable water, and good harbors have had much to do 
in making them great. The harbor of New York is crowded 
with ships from all the world. Congestion of business at this 
spot calls for the many great buildings. 

30 Up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York. A canyon be- 

tween lofty buildings, one of the greatest market streets in the 

world. 
267 The wharves at Montreal, the leading market town of Canada. 
48 Mouth of the Erie Canal at Buffalo, New York. The Great 

Lakes and Erie Canal make Buffalo a market center of large 

and growing importance. 
61 Pittsburgh, where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite 

to form the Ohio River. Good transportation and the presence 

of rich deposits of coal have made this place the steel market of 

the world. 
139 State Street, Chicago. The largest retail shopping district in 

America. One store on this street occupies an entire block, is 

sixteen stories above the street and three stories below, and does 

a larger business than all the merchants in the largest city on 

earth could do a century ago. 
167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. The business street in the mar- 
ket section of the city. 
230 Market Street, San Francisco, the shopping center of the western 

metropolis. 
327 Busy scene on the wharf of Valparaiso, the leading market town 

of Chile. 
315 Government buildings as seen from the Bourse, Buenos Aires, the 

financial market center of the Argentine. 
305 Rio Branco Avenue, in the business center of Rio de Janeiro, the 

chief market town of Brazil. 

347 Landing stage at Liverpool. With a range of 31 feet of tide, 

a great floating dock is provided as a landing stage. Liver- 
pool is the world's market center for cotton and for 
wheat. 

381 Royal Avenue, the chief market street of Belfast, Ireland. 

365 Princes Street, Edinburgh, Scotland. The principal market street 
of the Scotch capital. 

348 London Bridge. The upstream end of the Thames harbor, the 

heart of the market section of the city. 
420 The wharves of Goteborg, a lively market town of Sweden. 
416 In the heart of busy Stockholm, Sweden. 



90 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 

386 Hamburg. The leading market city of Germany, head of ocean 

navigation on the Elbe. 
400 Load of bricks on sailboat at Rotterdam, one of the world's great 

markets. 
421 View of Paris from the Arch of Triumph. Paris is one of the 

world's great central markets, headquarters for fashion in the 

finest wearing apparel. 
433 Harbor of Barcelona, the most active market center of Spain. 
457 Grand Canal, Venice, one of Italy's most important market towns. 

For a thousand years Venice was the leading market of the en- 
tire Mediterranean. 
462 Barge landing on Danube Canal, in the heart of Vienna, the great 

central market of Austria. 
464 Andrassy Street in the market center of Budapest, Hungary. 
486 The Krestchatik, the principal market street of Kief, Russia. 
526 View in Tokyo, Japan, the largest city, and a great merchandising 

center of Japan. 

513 Queen's Road, the leading business street of Hong Kong, the 

market center of South China. 

514 Scene in the harbor of Canton, China. 

546 View in Pasig River, Manila. These boats, called " cascos." are 
the homes of boatmen who make their living handling the 
freight in the great market port of Manila. 

511 The harbor of Colombo, Ceylon. A port of call for the south 
Asian trade, and a great trans-shipment market. 

501 The temple grounds at Benares, India. Visited by many thou- 
sands of pilgrims, and an important local, native market. 

492 View of Beirut, Syria, the most important market town of Asia 
Minor. 

558 View over Alexandria, in the delta of the Nile, the leading market 
city of Egypt. 



III. PRODUCTION CENTERS 

For various reasons, certain localities have become centers where 
raw materials or manufactured commodities are handled in such 
large quantities as to establish a claim to importance as a world mar- 
ket. Some cities come to buy and sell certain commodities so exten- 
sively as to become the price making centers for the whole world. 
Thus London for many years has been the world market for wool, 
tea, ivory, diamonds, and money; Liverpool for wheat and cotton; 
New York for coffee and of late for money; Chicago for meats, and 
so on. The following stereographs will help to an understanding of 
the tremendous concentration of interests represented in great city 
markets. 

140 Union Stod< Yards, Chicago. The concentration of railways at 
Chicago has focused the "Corn Belt" and the Great Plains into 



PRODUCTION CENTERS 91 

the largest live stock market on earth. The value of the pack- 
ing house product is over a million dollars a day for every 
day in the year. 

143 Trimming hams in preparation for the market. Chicago packing 

houses. 

144 Making sausages. Meat thus prepared is sold at the ends of the 

earth. Chicago is the world market for provisions. 

317 Cattle on range near La Plata, Argentina. So many cattle are 
raised on the farms and ranges of Argentina that Buenos Aires 
is becoming a very great market center for packing house 
products. 

159 Dairy cattle and barns, Lake Mills, Wisconsin. The region west 
and north of Chicago has come to be the dairy center of the 
country. 
45 Working 1000 pounds of freshly churned butter. Elgin, Illinois, 

is the butter market of America. 
57 Milking scene, New Jersey. The milk industry is extensively 
developed near all large cities in temperate lands. In our 
country the greatest development is near New York, and Chi- 
cago. 

240 Pigeon farm at Los Angeles, the primary squab market of the 

whole country. 
56 White Leghorn hens. Corning Egg Farm, New Jersey. There is 
so large a demand for eggs in our great cities, that special 
poultry farms are established to furnish the supply. 
13 Drying codfish in the sun ; Gloucester, Massachusetts, is the lead- 
ing fish market of America. 

226 Salmon : The finest haul of the season on the Columbia River. 

The salmon run up the glacier fed rivers to spawn. This 
makes the Puget Sound region the primary market for the 
world's salmon. 

227 Butchering salmon. Astoria. 
97 A mountain of oyster shells. 

86 " Shucking " oysters. Chesapeake Bay is the largest oyster pro- 
ducing water on earth, and Baltimore is the primary oyster 
market. 

531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. Fully one-half the 
food of the people of Japan comes from the waters, and the 
shallow waters are the largest producers. So great fish mar- 
kets are established in Yokahama, Beppu, Kobe and other such 
ports. 

Ill Sponge market, Key West Harbor. The shallow waters on the 
west shore of Florida are the largest sponge producers in our 
country, and Key West is the primary market. 

521 Store of rich tea merchant, Chifu. For centuries China has been 
the leading tea producer in the world, and Chifu, Shantung, 
Amoy and Canton have developed as large tea markets. 

)02 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, W. I. Many tropical lands produce 
coffee, but the price is set in the largest buying market, which 



92 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 

has been in turn, London, Le Havre, Hamburg, and is now 
New York. 

310 Drying coffee in the sun, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. This region 
produces about three-fourths of the world's coffee, and Santos 
and Rio de Janeiro are the leading markets. 

319 Vineyards near Mendoza. Soil and climate here favor the grape, 
and Spanish and Italian immigrants have brought their vines 
and skill with them, making Mendoza, in the Argentine Repub- 
lic, a large grape and wine market. 

236 Tokay grapes, at Acampo, California. The grape thrives so well 

all over California that the State furnishes the lion's share of 
fresh fruit, raisins and wine for the whole country. 

390 Vineyards at Rudesheim, Germany. The river valleys of Europe 
from south Germany to the Mediterranean furnish soil and 
climate adapted to the grape, and local primary wine markets 
have developed over the grape region. Such markets are 
Bordeaux, France, Oporto, Portugal, and Xerez, Spain. 

149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo, Michigan. A cool climate and peat 
soils, such as a drained marsh or old lake bottom, invite the 
growth of celery. Kalamazoo is so favored as to become the 
leading celery market in America. 

237 Navel orange groves, San Gabriel Valley, California. This most 

favored state leads the country in production of citrus fruits as 

well as grapes. 
112 Tobacco field in Kentucky. Soil and climate conspire to make 

Kentucky the leading tobacco state, and Louisville the leading 

tobacco market. 
42 Solar evaporation of brine at Syracuse, New York — the leading 

salt market of the country. 
153 Packing salt into barrels, St. Clair, Michigan.. The salt deposits 

around Bay City, Michigan, have made that place the market 

second in importance for salt in America. 
258 Cutting sugar cane, Porto Rico. Sugar of tropical origin has 

furnished the most of the American supply. For this reason 

the chief importing city, New York, has become our chief sugar 

market. 

34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar. Because of being great ship- 

ping centers, Philadelphia and Brooklyn have become the largest 
refiners of sugar, and New York the chief sugar market of the 
New World. 

35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 

294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, Central America. The various 
lowlands adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Western 
Caribbean Sea are so well adapted to banana culture that the 
American demand for this fruit has made New Orleans the 
leading banana market of the world. 

289 Henequen, a century plant, whose leaves produce the hard fiber 
known as Sisal. This is the twine most used for binding grain, 
the world over. The world market for it is in Chicago, the 



PRODUCTION CENTERS 93 

headquarters for the manufacture of reapers and other farm 
machinery. 

552 Stripping the leaf stalks of Manila hemp (abaca, native name) 

from which the best rope making fiber is made. It is grown 
only in the Philippines, and Cebu is the chief world market. 

553 Making rope from Manila hemp fiber at Manila. Manila hemp 

fiber is the best known material for cordage. The world's 
largest buying market has been London, but is likely to shift 
to U. S. A. 

506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, at Srinagar, Kashmir, India. 
The pastoral people from northern India to the Hellespont have 
marvelous skill in the making of shawls and rugs. Important 
local markets have developed at many points. 
40 Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, New York. Troy is the 
chief linen collar market of America. 

538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the silk worms, Japan. Nearly one- 
half of all the farmers in Japan rear silk worms, and Japan fur- 
nishes over one-third of all the world's export silk. Yokohama 
is the leading silk market. 

541 Interior of a silk weaving mill, Japan. The cities of Kyoto and 
Osaka are important markets for manufactured silk. 
22 Weighing and sorting skeins of raw silk. The U. S. A. is the 
largest buyer of raw silk in the world, and New York is the 
buying market. 
54 Weaving room, Paterson, New Jersey. Most of the silk of 
America is manufactured in Paterson or other towns near the 
central market of New York. 

239 Ostriches on the Cawston farm near Los Angeles, California. 
Southern California and Arizona have the hot and arid condi- 
tions to which the ostrich is adapted, and local markets for os- 
trich plumes are developing there. 
21 Manufacturing jewelry, Providence, Rhode Island. Providence 
has become the great center for jewelry manufacture and sale 
in America. 

117 Picking -cotton. Nearly two-thirds of the world's cotton is pro- 
duced in the humid lowlands of our southeastern states. 

119 Cotton bales on the levee, New Orleans. Great primary cotton 
markets have developed in Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, Mem- 
phis, Galveston and New Orleans. 
14 Cotton spinning mill at Lawrence, Massachusetts. One-half of 
all the American manufacture of cotton is in New England, and 
a number of market cities for cottons have grown up there, as at 
Lawrence, Fall River, and Boston. 

272 Scraping the hair from hides, Canada. The leather industry has 
developed in places where hides are easily obtained, and where 
tanning material is plenty. So the oak and hemlock forests in 
Canada and the U. S. A. have developed the leather industry 
and centers like Boston and Philadelphia have become great 
leather markets. 



94 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 

11 Cutting leather for high quality shoes. Lynn and Brockton, 

Massachusetts, are shoe markets for a world trade. 
41 Sewing room in a shoe factory, Syracuse, New York. 

532 A Japanese shoe shop. Shoes or clogs in Japan are made of 
wood, and made hy hand. So each town has its own market for 
shoes. 

131 Crude rubber as it comes from the jungles, or plantations. Para 
is the chief primary market for wild rubber. Singapore and 
Colombo are rivals for the primary market for plantation rub- 
ber. London has been for many years the world's central mar- 
ket, but New York now takes first rank. 

133 Making rubber boots and shoes at Akron, the manufacturing mar- 
ket of America. 
17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Massachusetts. The manufacture of 
wool has been so well developed in southeastern New England 
that Boston is the chief wool market in America. 
81 The bobbin room in a Philadelphia mill. Philadelphia is next to 
Boston the greatest wool market, and is the leading carpet mar- 
ket of the country. 

224 The Puget Sound and western Oregon regions have the best cli- 
matic conditions for forest growth, as shown by this great fir 
tree. 

216 Port Blakeley Mills, near Seattle. Because of the rich forests 

great mills are developed, and the Puget Sound region comes 
to be the greatest lumber market in the world. 

217 Shipping lumber, Washington, U. S. A. Much of the lumber 

for foreign trade goes from this market by sailing vessels. 
215 Log rafts. Much of the lumber for the coast trade is towed in 

great rafts. 
509 " Elephants a haulin' teak, in the slushy squdgy creek." Burma is 

the world's chief market supplying teak, and the elephant is the 

best lumber jack. 
412 Grinding billets of wood into pulp for paper. The most of the 

world's paper now is made from wood pulp, hence the primary 

paper markets are in the forest lands, Norway, Canada, and the 

northern states of America. 

19 Cut rags, for paper. The best paper is made from linen rags, and 

Holyoke, Massachusetts, is the chief manufacturing market. 

20 Inspecting paper, Holyoke, Massachusetts. 

297 Cutting tobacco. The best tobacco in the world is produced in 
western Cuba, and Havana is the market for it. 

325 Sacking nitrate, Chile. The world's primary nitrate market. 

573 Shipping ivory, Mombasa, Africa. The world's supply of ivory 
comes largely from central East Africa, and Mombasa is the 
primary market. The world market is at London. 

58 Firing table ware, Trenton, New Jersey, and East Liverpool, Ohio. 

are the leading pottery markets of the new world. 

59 Decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, New Jersey. 

79 Coal breaker in the anthracite region, eastern Pennsylvania. The 



REGIONS WITH LARGE DEMAND 95 

anthracite fields cover but 480 square miles, but furnish almost 
one-quarter of all American coal. 

129 Shipping coal, at Conneaut, Ohio. The region of eastern Ohio 
and western Pennsylvania and West Virginia furnishes about 
one-half of all the American coal. Pittsburgh is the chief 
bituminous coal center. Much coal is shipped westward from 
the Great Lakes ports. 

128 Unloading iron ore from a Lake Superior boat at Conneaut, Ohio. 
Most of the iron ore in America comes from the Lake Superior 
basis, and travels by boat to meet the coal and coke of the 
northern Appalachian fields. This provides for an important 
series of markets in iron and steel from Detroit round the 
south shore of Lake Erie to Buffalo. 

62 A blast furnace at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Because of the rich 
deposits of coking coal in the vicinity, and the supply of iron ore 
from Lake Superior, Pittsburgh has become the greatest iron 
market in the world. 

65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh. For reasons above given 
Pittsburgh is the greatest steel market on earth. 

82 General view of the erecting shop of the Baldwin locomotive 

works, Philadelphia. Because of the splendid development of 

the Baldwin Company, Philadelphia sells more locomotives than 

any other city in the New World. 

ISO Assembling Room in a Detroit automobile factory. Detroit is the 

world's leading automobile market. 
114 Chattanooga, because of its position on the river, is one of the 
great manufacturing centers of the South. 

IV. REGIONS WITH A LARGE DEMAND 

Certain regions are spoken of as markets for a given article. 
Thus America is spoken of as a good market for diamonds ; the great 
prairie plains as a market for farming machinery ; the populous orient 
as a great market for cotton cloths, and so on. There is endless op- 
portunity for illustration here, and only a few of the many possible 
illustrations are suggested below. 

203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. We think 
of the mining regions as great markets for rock drilling, crush- 
ing and milling machinery. 

334 Silver smelter, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. The countries along the 
Andes Mountains are all good markets for mining machinery. 

252 Gatun Locks, Panama Canal. While the great locks were build- 
ing, the Panama Canal was a good market for Portland cement, 
and for excavating machinery. 

407 The Lotefos, famous Norwegian waterfall. Because of her many 
waterfalls, Norway is a fine market for hydraulic and elec- 
trical machinery. 

178 Plowing with a tractor, South Dakota. The great plains, smooth 
and fertile, invite the use of labor-saving farming machinery. 



96 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 

561 Tilling the soil in Egypt, as it was done in the days of Moses. 

Egypt is looked upon as a promising market for labor-saving 
farming machinery. 

179 Tractor drawing double disc-harrow, and three-section tooth- 
harrows. South Dakota. 

181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader, Nebraska. All our great 
lowland farming area is a boundless market for farming ma- 
chinery. 

136 Harvesting corn with a cutter and binder, Indiana. 

177 Threshing wheat, Red River Valley. All our wheat lands are 
good markets for harvesting and threshing machinery, Fargo, 
North Dakota, is a great market for farm machinery. 

284 Farm lands in Mexico, a promising market for American ma- 
chinery. 

479 Treading out the grain, Greece — A market opportunity for 
American machinery. 

497 The threshing floor, Nazareth, Palestine. Another market op- 

portunity for American machinery. 

562 Threshing beans, Egypt — a potential market for American ma- 

chinery. 

498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine — a market for better 

devices. 
431 Washing clothes, Nice, France. A possible market for electric 

washing machines. 
519 A Chinese crowd looking at the camera. It suggests an endless 

market for American cotton cloths. 
503 Mohammedan crowd before the Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India. A 

great market for cotton clothing. 
523 Chinese sawing lumber with pit saws. A market opening for 

modern saw mill machinery. 
330 Cofa Bridge on the Oroyo Railway, Peru. The need of railways 

in South America makes a great market for American steel rails, 

locomotives and rolling stock. 
518 Train of Bactrian camels, China. There is a great awakening 

in China and a demand for railways — a great market for 

American manufactures. 
516 A stone road roller pulled by human muscle, Nankin, China — 

a market for modern steam rollers. 
28 Great buildings seen from City Hall Park, New York City. Large 

cities are great markets for structural steel, building stones and 

cement. 
87 The Capitol at Washington, D. C. The making of such beautiful 

monuments creates a market for marble and other fine build- 
ing stones. 



0. NATURAL FORMS AND FORCES 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
By WALLACE W. ATWOOD 

PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY 

The use of the stereograph is nearly as good as direct per- 
sonal observation in the field. In many cases the views se- 
cured by the photographer are better than one might happen 
upon while in the same region. The views here listed have 
been taken with great care, and selected as the best of many 
thousands. 

The teacher of geography always aims to give the general 
physical features of the region that is being studied, and a sys- 
tematic use of these views will help greatly in giving definite 
and accurate images. The classification following is in ac- 
cordance with the best text-books, and should prove convenient 
to the teacher. 

In studying an individual view the student should have in 
mind several questions, namely : 

(1) What does this view best illustrate? 

(2) Are the land forms of solid rock or loose material? 

(3) What may be the origin of the loose material? 

(4) What special land forms are shown here? 

(5) How may these be best described? 

(6) What places have I myself ever seen that are like this one? 

(7) How have the physical features affected the settlement and 
the activities of the people in this region? 

(8) Is there anything in the view that I do not understand and 
must ask the teacher? 

A full course for children in the study of geography might 
easily be framed about this series of 600 views. The lesson 
growing out of a single picture may often lead to a real and 
vital interest in a foreign land and a foreign people. When 
once accustomed to using these views the teacher will find that 
they facilitate the giving of a strong and effective lesson. 

97 



9S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

They raise problems in the child's mind, and call for original 
thought, thus vitalizing the work. 

I. FORCES WHICH CHANGE THE SURFACE OF 
THE EARTH — WEATHERING — EROSION 

During past ages the surface of the earth has been changed by va- 
rious natural forces, including the atmosphere, ground water, surface 
water, freezing and thawing, snow and ice in the form of glaciers, and 
internal forces such as heat and pressure, and organic agencies in- 
cluding man. These forces have produced the various natural fea- 
tures of the earth's surface which include mountains, hills, volcanoes, 
lakes, rivers with their shores and banks, oceans and islands, capes and 
peninsulas. 

A. ATMOSPHERE 
i. Wind 

The action of wind is brought about because of the dust and sand 
which it carries. 
68 Coke ovens produce dust. 
545 Dust coming out in clouds. 
563, 565, 209 When the wind blows the sand flies. 
223 The wind will pile up sand as it does snow. 
477 Old Grecian city buried by action of wind. 
565 These faces have been worn by wind driven sand. 

2. Chemical Elements 

These include oxygen, carbon dioxide and water. 

27, 379 The cables which suspend the bridge are painted to prevent 

rust. 
43 The steel rails will rust away. 
253 These steel boats are always painted to prevent rust. 
9, 10 Houses and fences painted to prevent weathering. 
37 The shingles treated with creosote to prevent decay. 
113 The weather has cracked the old logs. 
10 Weathering will gradually dim these words. 

36 The lettering on these tombstones is nearly worn away by wind 
and rain. 

3. Temperature 

The freezing of water in the crevices of rocks breaks them in pieces. 
330 The mountain is being broken to pieces. 
51 Frost and rain are breaking off the rocks. 

200 The pillars become roughened by wind and rain. 

201 The soft materials have been loosened and washed away, 



UNDERGROUND WATER 99 

4. Fantastic Features Due to Weathering 

197 The huge piles of rocks stand like sentinels. 

200 A gateway to the fields beyond. 

201 Chiseled rocks make a magnificent entrance. 

205 Nature has furnished a roof for a whole village. 

5. Talus 

208, 276, 323 Show talus piles or cones as result of weathering. 

6. Sand Dunes 
223 Sand dunes, the work of winds. 

B. UNDERGROUND WATER 

This is the water which has run down into the soil and is not seen 
on the surface. 

1. Sources 
These are rain and snow. 
1, 162, 542 The melting snow will sink into the ground. 

2. Conditions for Producing Underground Water 

104, 105 Water flows slowly here and sinks in quickly. 

83, 178, 179,419 Water will readily enter these soils. 

38, 70, 224 Forests aid in forming ground water by holding rain until 

it can soak into the ground. 
173 Sod holds rain until it soaks into the soil. 

3. Disposal of Ground Water 

1, 169, 173, 195 Small streams get considerable of their flow from 

springs. 
192,193 Hot springs — this water is too hot for animals or plants to 

live in. 
194 Geysers — every hour a million and a half gallons shoot up. 
161 Getting rid of too much ground water. 

4. The Work of Ground Water 

193 The heated water brings minerals from the depths. 
192 Deposits left in form of basins. 

206 A petrified tree which lived ages ago. Underground water grad- 

ually took away the wood and left in its place particles of quartz. 
38 Underground water dampens the roots of plants and makes them 

grow. 
567 Oases are watered by springs. 

C. RUNNING OR SURFACE WATER 
1. Source 

Running water comes from rain, snow, ground water, ponds, lakes 
and glaciers. 
191 The stream in the valley is being fed bv the snow. 



100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

542 Melting snow often forms streams. 

195 Snow melting to form the ponds and streams — the beginnings of 

rivers. 
154 Water from Lake Superior. 
264, 265 Water from the Great Lakes. 
322 The beginning of a river in this glacial lake. 
276 The stream begins where the glacier ends. 
408 The source of the stream is the distant glacier. 
448 Streams begin in these valleys. 



2. The Work of Running Water 

Erosion 

576 Some rocks are broken sooner than others. 
341 A recent rain has hollowed the street. 
49, 50 The rushing water wears off the edge of the hard rock. 
318 Continual pounding of the water breaks the rocks. 

407 Plunging down a mountain, water deepens its path. 

197 Nearly one-third of a mile deep has the water worn this gorge. 

363 The tiny brook wears a deep path. 

206 Formerly covered with soil. 

208 Broad and deep the channel has been made. 

463 Valleys are deepened and widened. 

Depositing 

509 The slow stream deposits its load. 
467 A winding river will fill in its curves. 

408 Fertile soil washed down from the mountains. 

120 At their mouths rivers may deposit their soil in the form of deltas. 

D. SNOW AND ICE 

i. Valley Glaciers 

276, 279 A bank of snow begins a glacier. 

448, 427 Snow the year around is needed for glacial formation. 

275 Layers of snow changing to ice. 

446 Natural home of the valley glacier. 

428 The great sea of ice — crevasses by the hundred. 

408 The distant valley filled with a glacier. 

219, 274 These crevasses are often 100 ft. or more deep and are due 

to an unequal surface over which a glacier moves or to different 

rates of movements. 
361 The valley has smooth curves as the result of glacial action. 
274, 428 These stones and soil were torn from the mountains. 
276^ 408 Glaciers in melting produce streams. 
361, 369, 377, 459 Glacial lakes surrounded by hills. 



ICE FIELDS — HEAT AND PRESSURE 101 

2. Ice Fields and Continental Glaciers 

A. Conditions of Formation 
345, 346 Fields of ice about the poles. 

344 A real field of snow and ice. 

342, 343 Near where the ice fields begin. 

B. The Work of Ice Fields 
38, 379 No sharp ridges in this glaciated area. 

361 A hollow where a glacial lake was formed. 
47 Soils for gardens have been left by glaciers. 
137, 147 The fertile fields of Indiana and Illinois were made largely of 

glacial drift. 
159 Wisconsin's famous herds feed where the glacier once existed. 
161 Some glacial lands need to be drained. 
361, 369, 377 Glacial lakes often have sloping shores. 
262 The rolling landscape formerly covered with a continental glacier. 

C. The Effects of Glaciation on Human Affairs 
137, 147 Fields of grain on soil of glacial origin. 
159 Dairying on glacial lands. 

47 Glacial soils are productive. 

357 Ivolling fields of grain in glaciated region. 

48 154 The Great Lakes, of glacial origin, are important waterways. 

E. HEAT AND PRESSURE 

i. Sinking of the Earth's Crust 

Internal heat and pressure help to change the earth's surface. 
256 The distant islands were once hills. 
39 The sinking of the land drowned this valley. 

2. Raising of the Earth's Crust 

A. Mountains 
102,201,322,323,408,460,508 Mountains are usually formed by eleva- 
tion of the land. 
330 Irregularity in strata is due to internal forces. 

B. Volcanic Action 
222, 291, 545, 525, 548 Volcanic action sometimes forms mountains. 

3. Earthquakes 

231,300 An earthquake has opened wide cracks. 

526 Houses are low so as to withstand the earthquakes. 

F. ORGANIC AGENCIES 

284 Vegetation is tearing down the mound of stone. 



102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

111 The land here is built of skeletons of corals. 

3, 4 Man is changing the face of nature. 
74, 250, 251 Man digs great valleys. 
163 The big steam shovels make big holes. 

II. NATURAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S 
SURFACE 

A. RIVERS AND VALLEYS 

i. Young Rivers 

Young rivers flow rapidly, have steep banks, and cut deep channels. 

195 The very beginnings of two rivers. 

228 The river has hardly found its path. 

363 The small stream wears a deep path. 

49, 50 The water flows rapidly by. 

407 Young rivers and young mountains are often companions. 

208 Digging for ages but still young. 

2. Mature Rivers 

These are rivers with a moderate current, sloping banks, and usually 
a straight course. 
39 The stream flows slowly. 
580 Such rivers are often shallow. 
392 Here the Rhine is broad and calm. 

264 Mature rivers are often great waterways for commerce. 
170, 174 Across the smooth Mississippi. 
101 Where two rivers peacefully meet. 

3. Old Rivers 

Old rivers flow slowly, often in winding courses. 

114 Notice the meandering course of the river. 

509 Low banks are characteristic of old rivers. 

106 Boats are usually common on such streams. 

517 The broad slow-moving stream of China. 

470 A famous bridge over the wide Danube. 

467 The river in its winding course. 

4. Drowned Rivers 

These are rivers in which the bed has sunken so that the water is 
deep, often forming estuaries at the mouth. 

39. 51 Deep enough for the largest ships. 

00 Battleships find plenty of room here. 
264 The largest ocean liners travel in this river. 

B. LAKES 
A lake is an inland body of water. 



LAKES — COAST FORMS 103 

i. Some Lakes of Glacial Origin 

361 England; 369 Scotland; 377 Ireland; 459 Italy; 48, 154 the Great 
Lakes of America. 

2. Lakes of Non-glacial Origin 

222 The top of the mountain sunken, the peak an island. 
293 Lake Nicaragua, C. A. 

3. Effects of Lakes on Human Affairs 

48 Grain from the west in these boats. 

128, 129' Coal and iron are shipped by boat on the lakes. 

154 Ship loads of produce from the west. 

157 Copper is carried on the Great Lakes. 

C. COAST FORMS 

1. Beaches 

A beach may sometimes be defined as the sand or gravel along the 
sea-shore between high and low tide. 

60 Bathing along the beach is very popular. 
430, 439 Sandy beaches are good landing places for small boats. 

13, 531 The beach is a good place to dry fish. 

2. Coastal Lowlands 

401 Nearly as level as the sea and not much higher. 

248 A low plain below the hill. 

531 A flat country with mountains in the distance. 

3. Drowned Coasts 

The land along the coast sometimes sinks. 
382 The small islands growing smaller yearly. 
374 The sinking of the land often makes harbors. 
307 The distant harbor was once a valley. 
299, 277 Deep water is characteristic of such harbors. 

4. Sea Cliffs 

Some seashores are very rocky. 

439 A steep sided rock standing in the water. 
432 A sudden drop from the castle to the sea. 

5. Capes 

A cape is a portion of land projecting into the sea. 
414 The mountain projects to form the cape. Such a high mountain- 
ous cape is called a promontory. 
248 Reaching out toward the ocean. 



104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

6. Peninsulas 

A peninsula is a body of land almost surrounded by water. 
432 The Castle of Monaco is built on a small peninsula. 
256 The wireless tower is on the peninsula. 
248 The lower part of the city is built on a peninsula. 

7. Isthmus 

An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger portions 
of land. 

432 Only room for a narrow road on the isthmus to the castle on the 
peninsula. 

8. Harbors 

Harbors are indentations in the coast, often at the mouth of rivers, in 
which boats may anchor. 
591 The city is built near the harbor. 
556 Railroads and steamships meet at the harbors. 
511, 52 Ocean liners and harbor boats. 
514 Harbor at Canton. Houseboats. 
25, 26, 27 One of the busiest harbors in the world. 
374 A big harbor well protected from gales. 
313 Harbors are made deeper by dredging. 
499, 574 Poor harbors. 

492 An old commercial city on the Mediterranean. 
278 A fisherman's harbor near the greatest of fishing places. 
307 One of the best harbors in the world. 
430, 217, 257, 277, 280, 299, 304, 314 Other harbors. 

g. Bays 

A bay is a body of water partly surrounded by land. 
248 This breakwater is built out into the bay to form a harbor, 
492 The bay at Beyrout. 

10. Straits 

A strait is a narrow portion of water connecting two bodies of water. 
489 The waterway connecting the Black and Mediterranean Seas. 
439 Entrance to the Mediterranean. 



D. ISLANDS 

An island is a portion of land, smaller than a continent, entirely sur- 
rounded by water. 



ROCKY ISLANDS — PLAINS 105 

i. Flat Islands 

25 The islands in New York harbor are not much higher than the 
water. 

99 Barely out of the sea. 
114 Island in Tennessee River. 
401 An island of Holland. 

2. Rocky Islands 

369 Ellen's Island in Loch Katrine. 

256 At the entrance to the Panama Canal. 

382 Small rocky islands near Ireland. 

E. PLAINS 

i. Coastal Plains 

These are plains near the sea coast made by uplifting the ocean bed. 
108 This was formerly the bed of the ocean. 
122 Oil is frequently found near the sea. 
105 Along the coast are miles of plains. 
104 Level fields with water are needed for rice culture. 
399 Land so low that the sea is held by a wall. 

2. River Flood Plains 

Some of the most fertile fields are found in the broad valleys of rivers. 
114, 136,233 River floods plains of the U. S. 
317, 321, 332, 333 River flood plains of South America. 
408, 419, 467 River flood plains of Europe. 
509,515,529,549 River flood plains of Asia. 
561, 564, 580 River flood plains of Africa. 

3. Compound Alluvial Plains 

Several rivers help to make this type of plain. 

237 Fertile lands are in the valleys. 

467 Two rivers uniting form large plains. 

4. Delta Plains 

These have been formed by continued deposit of alluvial soil at the 
mouth of rivers. 

120 This land has been gradually deposited by the Mississippi. 
500 The Ganges carries and deposits acres of soil. 
558 A city built on a delta plain. 

5. Lake Plains 

Bottoms of former lakes form alluvial plains. 

47 Fertile soil of a lake plain. 
166 An old lake bottom growing potatoes. 
149 A very fertile soil is required for celery. 



106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

6. Great Western Plains of U. S. 

Formerly covered by a great inland sea. 

181, 183 The Nebraska and Kansas plains are noted for alfalfa. 
186 Cattle grazing on the semi-arid plains of the west. 

198 Sugar beet growing requires fertile level land. 

199 These great plains are often very dry in summer. Good culture 

makes them productive. 

126 A level part of Texas. 

7. Glacial Plains 

These are plains formed by ice fields or glaciers. 

136, 137 The great corn fields of Indiana are glacial plains. 
161 So level that water does not run off readily. 
488 Agriculture on the glacial plains of Russia. 
147 Illinois field of oats on the glacial plains. 

8. Plateaus 

A plateau is a tract of high level land. 

218 Some elevated plains produce good crops. 

190 Some elevated plains are good for grazing only. 

209 Some elevated plains are deserts. 

9. Effects of Plains upon Human Affairs 
85 Picking peaches on a coastal plain. 
105 Rice is grown where the land is flat and wet. 

127 Grazing on the semi-arid plains. 

136, 137, 147 Productive fields on fertile plains. 
140 From the rich plains of the west. 
166 Potatoes require fertile soil. 

F. MOUNTAINS 
1. Young Mountains 

These are characterized by having rough pointed peaks and are be- 
lieved to be of recent origin, geologically considered. 
201 Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 
213 These mountains are being rapidly leveled. 
447, 448 A young mountain with a sharp peak. 
445 Snow will not stay on the steep slopes. 
441 These mountain paths are difficult to climb. 
440 A dangerous road to travel. 
276 Sharp ridges characterize the young mountains. 
427 Time will smooth the roughened peaks. 
323 The slopes are becoming less sleep. 
322 The valley is filling with the broken peaks. 
508 Mountains above the clouds. 



OLD MOUNTAINS— HILLS — DIVIDES 107 

2. Old Mountains 

These are characterized by having rounded peaks worn off through 
ages of time. 

102 Mountains rounded like the waves of the sea. 

361 The mountains have been rounded by glaciers and washed into 
the valleys. 

38 At one time mountains, now a rolling landscape. 

39 The round top hills sloping to the river. 

3. Mountain Ranges 

102 This view of the tops of the Blue Ridge shows very clearly the 

idea of a mountain range. 
213 The Wasatch Range rises behind Ogden. 
243 The Coast Range in Alaska was a great barrier to gold seekers. 

4. Mountain System 

All the ranges and highlands that belong to one highland form a sys- 
tem. It is impossible to show a whole system in one picture. 
508 This picture of a little part of the Himalayas may help you to 
imagine ranges behind ranges, peaks behind peaks extending 
for hundreds of miles. That would give you some idea of a 
mountain system. 

5. Mountain Peaks 

114 View from Lookout Mt., Tenn. 

201 Pike's Peak, Colorado. 

221 Mount Hood, Oregon, in the Cascade Range. 

276 Mount Sir Donald, the Matterhorn of the Selkirk Mountains in 

Canada. 
445, 447 Peaks in the Alps Mountains. 
448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland. 
508 Peaks of the Himalaya Mountains. 

6. Volcanic Mountains 

A volcano is an opening in the earth through which lava and gases 

are expelled. 

545 Volcano in Java. When the heated matter forces its way out there 
are tremendous explosions. Rocks are blown to dust and 
thrown miles into the air. Great quantities of steam and of 
broken rock are thrown out. The lava or melted rock flows 
down the side. 

453 Vesuvius. A volcano builds up a cone about the opening. 

221 Mount Hood has been quiet for so long that the cone has become 
weathered. It is cut by many valleys. 

288 Popocatapetl, an active volcano in Mexico. 

291 The twin volcanoes of Guatemala. 

548 Mayon has had many destructive eruptions. 

525 Fuji-Yama, the sacred mountain of Japan. 

7. Divides and Passes 

195 Water from one pond flows into the Atlantic, from the other into 
the Pacific. 



108 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

322, 323 The dividing ridge of S. America. 

243 Between the peaks to the gold fields beyond. 

251 Cutting the mountains in two. 

8. Effects of Mountains on Human Affairs 

287 Mines in Mexico. 

187, 214, 243 Mining in mountains. 

408 Small farms in the mountains. 

411 Dairying in the mountains. 

413 Reindeers are found in the mountainous north lands. 

287, 187, 214, 243 Mountains are very often rich in minerals. 

408 Small farms in mountains. 

411 Mountaineers often follow dairying. 

440, 441, 48 Travelers delight to climb mountains. 

243 Mountains act as barriers, making communication difficult. 

325 The Andes make the west coast of South America dry and so the 

nitrate remains. Rain would carry it away. 
440 to 459 The Alps shut out the cold winds and make Italy warm. 
499 to 508 The Himalayas cause the rains to fall in India, making 

that land wonderfully warm and fertile. 
440 to 449 Mountain people, such as the Swiss, are usually liberty 

loving people. 
506 They are often backward in their civilization. 
See also classification on Zones. 

9. Mountains of the World 

102, 219, 221, 243, 274, 276 Mountains of N. America. 

322, 323, 326, 330 Mountains of S. America. 

388, 408, 409, 427, 428, 436, 440,441, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 460 

Mountains of Europe. 
508, 525, 531, 548 Mountains of Asia. 
For Zones and Deserts, see classification on Zones. 

10. Hills 

479, 480 Mountains worn down to hills. 

496 Old Palestine with its rolling hills. 

497 Soil from the hill has filled the valley. 
530 Hillside covered with tea plants in Japan. 
262 Forests of Canada in a hilly country. 
127 Low hills may be used for grazing. 

11. Mesas 

These are small plains on the tops of mountains or hills. 
475 The distant Acropolis with a flat top. 



7. ZONES AND THEIR EFFECTS 

ELEVATION OF LAND (ALTITUDE) AND ITS 
EFFECT ON LIFE 

By ROBERT De C. WARD, A.M. 
PROFESSOR OF CLIMATOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

Climate itself cannot be illustrated by means of photographs. 
The effects of climate, however, upon the general appearance 
of a country ; upon vegetation, crops, occupations, dwellings, 
etc., may perfectly well be shown in this way. A picture of 
the general climatic conditions is thus obtainable. In the 
following list, those photographs have been selected which fur- 
nish the more obvious illustrations of such climatic controls 
over the earth's surface and its flora, and over man's mode of 
life under the limitations which climate imposes. This broad 
view of climate in relation to man needs emphasis in any 
study of geography. The basis of the classification is that 
generally adopted by climatologists in their description of the 
climatic zones, and of their subdivisions. The classification 
is therefore based on climate, and the views are not subdivided 
on the basis of political divisions. Views of cities are not 
included unless they have some more or less distinct climatic 
interest. For such general views, reference should be made 
to the Geographical Classification. 

It must be borne in mind that there is usually a gradual 
transition from one climate into another, and for this reason 
many views might equally well be listed under two headings. 
Furthermore, the zones of climate are not separated by any 
rigid boundaries. 



109 



1 10 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 



I. THE CLIMATIC ZONES: THEIR CHARACTER- 
ISTICS AND THEIR PRODUCTS 

' A. "THE TROPICS" 

i. The Equatorial Belt 

The dominant characteristic of the equatorial belt, (i.e., the inner 
portion of the tropical zone within about 10° or 12° of the equator) is 
the prevailingly high and uniform temperature throughout the year, with 
no seasons in our sense, and a generally heavy rainfall, coming normally 
in two rainy and two so-called dry seasons. In some districts, however, 
rain falls throughout the year, and the " dry " seasons are only slightly 
less rainy than the " wet " seasons. These double rainy and dry sea- 
sons are easily modified by other conditions, as by the topography, alti- 
tude, and, as in the Indo-Australian area, by the monsoons. There is 
thus no rigid belt of equatorial rains extending around the world. The 
high temperatures and heavy rainfall produce a superabundance of 
vegetation, unfavorable to human occupation. The population is gen- 
erally sparse, and at a relatively low stage of civilization. The life of 
man as a whole is controlled by the rains. The difficulty of travel and 
transportation, and of clearing the forests, operate to retard the advance 
of civilized man. The hot damp climate is generally unfavorable for 
settlement by people from cooler altitudes. The foreign whites are few 
in number, but are the driving power in the development of these 
equatorial lands. 

572 Natives of equatorial Africa, in typical costume. 
247 Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting, Panama. 

131 Crude rubber, one of the most valuable products of the rainy 
equatorial forests, especially in Brazil. 

570 Peeling bark for bark cloth, equatorial Africa. 

573 Ivory from the African forests, Mombasa. 

294 Bananas, one of the most widespread and valuable food plants of 
the tropics, Costa Rica. 

571 Sisal hemp, valuable fibre plant from equatorial Africa. 
255 Maintaining health in the tropics, Panama hospitals. 
249 Village scene, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. 

337 Narrow streets in a tropical city, providing shade during much of 

the day, Baranquilla, Colombia. 

338 Where heating plants are not necessary, La Guaira, Venezuela. 

251 What the intelligence and energy of the northerner have accom- 

plished, Gaillard cut, Panama Canal. 

252 Completed Panama Canal, cut through tropical jungles. 
254 What the Panama Canal h;is made possible. 



THE TRADE WIND BELTS 111 

2. The Trade Wind Belts 

About one-half of the earth's surface is within the trade wind zone 
for part or all of the year. These belts, therefore, include a considerable 
variety of climates. The seasonal range of temperature is relatively 
small, but is greater than in the equatorial belt. The control over man's 
life and activities is to be found in the rainfall. The windward (east- 
ern) sides of continents or islands in the trade winds are well watered, 
especially if the land is high, while the interiors and leeward (western) 
slopes are dry. Where the trades blow directly on shore the year around 
the rainfall is usually fairly well distributed through all months but 
is heaviest in winter. During the summer, over much of the trade wind 
zone, the migration of the belt of equatorial rains into higher latitudes 
brings a tropical rainy season, whose duration and intensity vary with 
the distance from the equator, and with other controls. Where the 
trade winds blow over continental interiors, far from the ocean and 
also beyond the reach of the migrating belt of equatorial rains, pure 
deserts are found. These deserts may even reach the sea on the lee- 
ward side of a continent, as in western Australia and northwestern and 
southwestern Africa. When high mountains border the western coast, 
as in Peru, the trades are rainy on the eastern side of the ranges, and a 
desert prevails on the leeside. Vegetation in the trade wind zone varies 
closely with the rainfall. The transition from wet tropical forests, 
through savannas, to the desert marks the transition from abundant, 
through moderate, to deficient rainfall. By reason of their altitude, 
tropical plateaus in the trade wind zone have a more temperate climate 
than the lowlands. Their vegetation and their crops clearly indicate 
this. Man finds in the trade wind belt more favorable conditions for 
work and development than in the perennially hot muggy belt of 
equatorial rains. 

(a) Windzvard continental lands and tropical islands with generally 
abundant rainfall 

307 The picturesque environs of a city in the southern tropic, Rio de 
Janeiro, Brazil. 

304 A tropical port, Bahia, Brazil. 

258 Sugar cane, an important crop in moist, warm tropical and semi- 
tropical lowlands, Porto Rico. 

298 A Cuban farm. 

302 Picking coffee in the West Indies, a trade wind zone product. 
297 Cuban tobacco, growing under the shade of banana trees for pro- 
tection against the sun. 

303 Cocoa, a characteristic product of the damp lowlands of tropical 

America, West Africa and the East Indies. 
301 Cattle on the rich grass lands of Jamaica. 



1 12 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 

259 Papaya trees growing in the mild tropical climate of the Hawaiian 

Islands. 
592 Natives of New Guinea, in the southeast trade belt. 
291 Scene in Guatemala, Central America. 

(b) Leezvard continental lands, with climate often tempered by alti- 
tude, and summer rainfall ranging from deficient or light to abundant 

287 Characteristic vegetation of the semi-arid Mexican plateau. 
282 The bare hills around the city of Mexico. 

288 Irrigated and cultivated fields on the Mexican plateau. 

285 Drawing sap from a Mexican agave, " century plant," to be made 

into the national drink, pulque. 
284 Farming on the Mexican plateau, where many temperate zone 

cereals can be raised. 
281 Adobe hut a cheap and serviceable building in a land of relatively 

little rainfall. 

289 Henequen, a species of agave, yielding sisal fibre from which bag 

ging and cordage are made, Yucatan. 

575 The open country of southeastern Africa. Cape to Cairo Rail 

way, near Victoria Falls. 
580 Fording the shallow Vaal River, in a district of light rainfalls, 
South Africa. 

576 The rushing waters of the Zambezi River, fed by the heavy equa- 

torial rains, Rhodesia, Africa. 

310 Sun-drying coffee during the winter dry season on the Brazilian 

plateau, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

311 Carrying Brazilian coffee to the railroad. 

589 Sheep on the grass lands of southern Australia. 

(c) Leeward deserts, shut off from rain-bearing winds by mountains to 

zvindzvard 

330 The bare mountain slopes of Peru. 

333 Planting sugar cane on the irrigated coast desert of Peru. 

332 Preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 

329 Snow-capped mountain rising above desert plateau, Peru. 

335 On the dry Bolivian plateau. 

325 Nitrate mines in desert region, Chile. 

3. Monsoon Regions 

The continental lands and islands in the monsoon belt are character- 
ized by marked seasonal changes in wind direction. The rainy season 
comes when the winds blow onshore ; the dry season when they blow 
offshore. The rainfall is generally abundant, often excessive, and as 
a rule follows the vertical sun ; i.e., the summers are rainy while the 
winters are dry. Over most of the greatest and most typical mon- 
soon area, that of India, eastern Asia and the adjacent Islands, the 
summer (rainy) monsoon is prevailingly southwesterly or southerly. 



THE SUB-TROPICAL BELTS 113 

The northeast trades blow in winter, and are known as the dry mon- 
soon. Some places on eastern coasts or slopes have their rainy season 
in winter, with the northeast monsoon. There is often no sharp division 
between trade controls and monsoon controls. 

547 The shady side of the street preferred, Manila, P. I. 
546 House boats, well protected against the hot tropical sun and the 
heavy tropical rains, Manila, P. I. 

549 Rice fields on an island in the monsoon belt, Manila, P. I. 

550 Hulling rice, the most important cereal grain of hot and rainy trop- 

ical districts, Island of Luzon, P. I. 

551 Coconuts, a characteristic tropical lowland product. 

552 The raw material for hemp, one of the leading Philippine exports. 
554 Mission Home Grounds, Island of Guam. 

574 East African seaport, in hot, damp coast climate. 

508 Where the mountains reach above the snow line, Himalayas. 

B. THE SUB-TROPICAL BELTS 

These are marginal belts, between trades and westerlies, and share in 
some of the characteristics of both types of climate. They are far 
enough from the equator to be free from continued high temperatures, 
and near enough to be spared extreme cold. Their rainfall is controlled 
by the stormy westerlies and, in some districts, by the inflowing damp 
continental winds of summer. The former control gives winter rains ; 
the latter brings a summer maximum. Where both controls are at work, 
there is rainfall throughout the year. Except in the latter case, the 
rainfall is usually rather light. In districts beyond the reach of effective 
winter rains, as in Egypt, for example, there are deserts. The sub- 
tropical belt may be subdivided according to the controls and seasons of 
rainfall. 

i. Districts with "Mediterranean" Climates 

These districts have mild winters, warm and dry summers, and win- 
ter rains from the cyclonic storms of the prevailing westerlies, which 
give generally sufficient but not abundant rainfall. Because of their 
small ranges of temperature, their abundant sunshine, and their general 
freedom from severe storms, these districts have long been well-known 
and popular health and pleasure resorts. This type of climate is mainly 
limited to the western coasts of the continents, and to the islands off 
these coasts, in latitudes 28°-40°. The area over which these conditions 
prevail is exceptionally wide in the Eastern Hemisphere, and reaches 
far inland there. The fact that the Mediterranean countries are so 
generally included in this belt has led to the use of the name " Medi- 
terranean climates." Irrigation is generally necessary in summer. 
Olives, grapes, oranges are characteristic plants. 

430 A favorite resort on the Mediterranean Riviera, Cannes, France. 
432 Monaco, on the Mediterranean Riviera. 



114 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 

459 Lake Como, a well-known health and pleasure resort. 

495 Jerusalem, and its olive trees, typical of Mediterranean climates. 
497 Threshing in the dry season, Palestine. 

496 The bare hills and bright sunshine of Palestine. 

493 Streets of Damascus, roofed over as a protection against sun and 

rain. 
489 General view of the Bosporus, showing characteristic vegetation. 
475 Athens, Greece, with cactus and scrubby vegetation in foreground. 

479 Threshing during the dry summer in Greece. 

480 Sheep grazing on the lowlands of Greece. 

436 The irrigated slopes of Granada, Spain. 

437 Oranges from irrigated lands, Valencia, Spain. 

434 The open tableland of Spain, semi-arid and treeless. 

438 Bringing the famous Malaga grapes to market. 

236 Vineyard in the " Mediterranean " climate of California. 

237 Southern California orange groves, on irrigated lowlands. 

238 Orange blossoms and fruit, southern California. 
234 An almond orchard, California. 

233 Harvesting in the dry summer of California. 

239 California ostrich farm, a reminder that the climates of south 

Africa and of California are similar. 
326 Valparaiso, Chile, whose climate is much like that of the central 

California coast. 
319 Italian grape-growers, Mendoza, Argentina. 
321 Scene on the Mendoza River, Argentina, a district of semi-aridity. 

2. Semi-arid and Arid Districts 

These are subtropical lands which are too far from the westerlies to 
receive more than scanty precipitation from the cyclonic storms of 
winter. Egypt is essentially a part of the desert of Sahara. Its north- 
ern portion is overlapped by the southern edge of the stormy prevailing 
westerlies. 

564 Overflow of the Nile, Egypt, resulting from the heavy spring rains 
in the Abyssinian mountains. 

566 Palms — producing fruit and wood in semi-arid and arid regions. 

561 Agriculture in the irrigated Nile valley, Egypt. 

562 Threshing beans in the Nile valley, Egypt. 

563 Spinning Egyptian cotton. 

569 How the Nile water is conserved for use in irrigation, Assuan, 
Egypt. 

567 An oasis in the desert, Egypt. 

3. Sub-tropical Lands with No Dry Season 

These districts are in sub-tropical latitudes in the southeastern por- 
tions of Asia and of North America. They receive more or less rain 
in winter, from the cyclonic storms of the prevailing westerlies, but 
usually have their heaviest rainfall in summer, with onshore winds 
of the monsoon type. The rainfall is abundant, and the winters are not 



TEMPERATE ZONES — WINDWARD COASTS 115 

severe. Among the economic products are cotton, rice, sugar cane and 
tropical fruits. 

117 Cotton, a typical crop on the warm lowlands of Gulf States. 

104 Flooding rice fields, South Carolina. 

105 Lowland rice, South Carolina. 

107 Gathering turpentine in the long-leaf pine belt of the southern 

states. 

118 Peanut harvest, Arkansas. 

108 Gathering pineapples in semi-tropical Florida. 

C. THE " TEMPERATE," OR INTERMEDIATE ZONES 

The so-called " temperate " zones occupy about one-half of the earth's 
surface. They are belts of prevailing westerly winds; of frequent 
cyclonic storms, especially in winter, and of changeable weather. Sea- 
sonal contrasts in temperature are marked, and over the northern con- 
tinental interiors reach extremes greater than those found anywhere 
else in the world. Rainfall, which comes chiefly in connection with 
cyclonic storms, or in thundershowers, varies greatly with distance 
from the ocean and with topography. Bold windward coasts in middle 
and higher latitudes have generally heavy, even excessive amounts ; 
leeward coasts are less rainy; continental interiors are still drier, and 
may even become deserts, as in Asia and southwestern North America. 
Over much of these zones, rains are distributed fairly uniformly 
throughout the year, but on the western (windward) coasts the win- 
ter is the rainiest season, while over the interior lands most of the rain 
falls in the warmer months. The seasonal changes of the temperate 
zones stimulate man to activity. They develop him physically and 
mentally. They encourage higher civilization. 

The " temperate " zones include a great variety of climates and of 
crops. In the southern hemisphere this zone is far more " temperate " 
than in the northern, and really merits the name. 

i. Windward (West) Coasts 

These have mild winters, cool summers, and abundant rainfall, 
fairly well distributed through the year but coming mostly in winter. 

224 Great trees in the rainy forest of Oregon. 

215 Lumber from the rainy forests of the northern Pacific Coast. 

379 A scene in the* Emerald Isle, Kenmare, Ireland. 

378 Peat fuel, a product of the cool, damp climate of Ireland. 

369 The trees and lakes of rainy Scotland. 

373 A highland cottage, Scotland, well protected against cold and rain. 

361 A picturesque bit of western England; the Lake District. 

357 Wheat on the lowlands of eastern England. 

358 English beef cattle, raised chiefly on the rainy western lowlands. 
407 A Norwegian waterfall, characteristic of the rainy western moun- 
tains. 

328 Indians in cool damp climate of Straits of Magellan. 



1 16 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 

2. Continental Interior and East Coast Lowlands 

These have large seasonal ranges of temperature and sufficient to 
abundant rainfall, fairly well distributed through the year but com- 
ing mostly in summer. The winters are colder and the rainfall is less 
abundant than on the western coasts. 

50 Effects of severe winter cold, Niagara Falls. 

542 Snow on the roofs, Seoul, Chosen. 

60 Sea bathing during the hot summer. 

38 Characteristic summer landscape in the eastern U. S. 

262 Nova Scotia, a favorite resort for American travelers on account 

of its cool summers. 

148 Dikes for protection against a spring flood. 

178 Plowing the soil, South Dakota. 

179 Making a good seed bed, South Dakota. 

184 Corn ripening in the long and warm summer of Kansas. 

136 Harvesting the corn, Indiana. 

147 Oats from the fertile fields of Illinois. 

181 Gathering the alfalfa crop, Nebraska. 

166 A potato field, Minnesota. 

85 Delaware peaches. 

175 Apples from the great American apple belt, which reaches from 
Missouri to New York. 

47 Cantaloupes from New York state. 

137 Indiana pumpkins. 

112 A Kentucky tobacco field. 
13 A climatic element in the cod fish industry. Sun-drying the fish. 

162 Logging in winter when the hauling is easy, Minnesota. 
1 Products of our eastern forests, Maine. 

130 Tapping the sunny side of a sugar maple tree when the sap begins 
to flow in the spring, Ohio. 

390 Vineyards of the Rhine Valley (Germany), a sheltered climatic 
oasis favorable for grape culture. 

419 Sugar beets, a profitable crop in the relatively dry and severe cli- 
mate of Sweden. 

530 Japanese tea, growing on protected mountain slopes in a district 
with warm rainy summers. 

527 Rice, an important crop on the lowlands of Japan, where the sum- 
mers are rainy. 

529 Japanese laborers in the rice fields ; the hats furnish protection 
against rain and sun. 

537 Mulberry leaves, used for feeding silk worms, Japan. 

317 Cattle on the alfalfa lands of eastern Argentina. 

522 Tilling the soil on a Manchurian farm. 

488 Plowing on a Russian farm. 



HIGHLANDS — POLAR ZONES 1 17 

3. Continental Interior Highlands 

Semi-arid or arid, and with marked seasonal ranges of temperature. 
The moister portions are used for agriculture; the drier, for grazing; 
the driest are deserts, except where irrigation is possible. 

* 

186 Cattle on the grassy plains of Kansas. 

127 Cattle drive on the Texas plains. 

188 Bronchos on the western plains, Montana. 

190 Where little rain falls, but sheep find enough pasturage. 

218 The immense wheat fields of eastern Washington. 

199 Barley raised by "dry farming" methods in Colorado, where 

there is insufficient rainfall for crops handled by ordinary 

methods. 
198 Sugar beets on the irrigated fields of Colorado. 

209 Where irrigation is necessary, Arizona. 

210 Where the heavier rainfall over the mountains supplies water for 

irrigating the desert lowlands, Roosevelt Dam. 

212 City on an irrigated desert ; Salt Lake City, Utah. 

213 An irrigated desert, supporting a city, with bare mountains in the 

background, Ogden, Utah. 



4. Temperate Zone Mountains 

These have successive vertical climatic zones, marked by lower tem- 
peratures and generally heavier rainfall than the lowlands, grading into 
" polar climates " above, with snow and ice, if the altitude is sufficiently 
great. Vertical zones of vegetation correspond with the vertical cli- 
matic zones. 

For more complete statement see classification, Elevation of Land 
(Altitude) in this chapter. 

D. THE POLAR ZONES 

The " temperate zones " merge into the " polar zones " where the 
mean temperature of the warmest month is 50°. In general, on the polar 
side of this limit, forest trees and cereals do not grow. The tempera- 
tures are always low ; the winters are long and severe ; the summers 
are short : precipitation is light and mostly in the form of snow. Life 
is hard. The food supply is scanty and is obtained mostly by hunting 
and fishing. Population is sparse. 
279 Winter in Labrador. 

342 Ships of Peary expedition, 1901, Nuerke, Greenland. 

343 Eskimos. 

344 Hauling snow for water supply, Belgian Antarctic expedition. 

345 Traveling on skis on the Antarctic ice. 

346 Amundsen, discoverer of South Pole, on Antarctic ice. 
246 Alaskan dog team, and drivers. 

245 Placer miners protected against mosquitoes in the Alaskan summer. 



118 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 



II. ELEVATION OF LAND (ALTITUDE) AND ITS 

EFFECT ON LIFE: THE VERTICAL 

CLIMATIC ZONES 

From the life standpoint, the most critical change that takes place 
with increasing elevation above sea-level, as in going up a mountain, 
is the decrease in temperature. If this decrease continues long enough ; 
i.e., if the mountain is sufficiently high, " polar climates," with snow 
and ice, are found in the upper slopes and at the summit. Vertical 
zones of vegetation, and of animal life, correspond with the vertical 
zones of climate. In the tropics, there may thus be a gradual transi- 
tion from the dense forests or the cultivated products of the warm 
tropical lowlands, up to higher levels where " temperate zone " fruits 
and cereals are raised, and then, farther up, through forests and be- 
yond the tree line until polar conditions of life and of climate are 
reached. In highest mountains of "temperate" latitudes the vertical 
succession of climatic and of vegetation zones is similar, but the lowest 
zone has a temperate flora and fauna, and the vertical range of climates 
is therefore from " temperate " to polar, instead of from tropical to 
polar. A few thousand feet of ascent on a high mountain will there- 
fore give, in a very short vertical distance, the same series of zones, of 
climate, and of vegetation, as are met with in going a distance of many 
hundreds of miles, from lower to higher latitudes, near sea level. 
For high latitude and its influence on human affairs see classification, 
Earth Neighbors. 

508 The mighty Himalayas, at whose base tropical products are raised 
on the warm lowlands of India, and whose cold summits are 
covered with eternal snow. 
329 Monte Misti, 19,200 feet high, in southern Peru. Its summit is 
snow covered during the rainy season, while flowers bloom and 
snow never falls on the plateau, 10,000 feet lower, above which 
the mountain rises. 
548 A tropical mountain : Mayon, Island of Luzon, Philippines. 
Rice and tobacco are raised at its base. Farther up, on its 
slopes thrives the plantain tree, from which Manila hemp is ob- 
tained. (See also 549, rice fields on the lowlands of Luzon.) 
284 Threshing on the Mexican plateau. Temperate cereals are raised 
here, while at the lower levels, where the temperatures are 
higher, tropical products alone can be cultivated. 
311 Taking coffee to market on the Brazilian plateau. This plateau, 
2000-3000 feet above sea level, has ideal climatic conditions for 
coffee, and, because of its elevation, is a far healthier place of 
residence for white men than the hot lowlands of the Amazon 
Valley. 
243 The rush to the Klondike (1897-1898) across the snow-covered 
Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. The heavy snowfall on many mountains 
makes them difficult to cross in winter. 



THE VERTICAL CLIMATIC ZONES 119 

221 Rising above the snow line, Mt. Hood. The vegetation in the 
foreground illustrates very clearly the contrast in the vertical 
zones of climate. 

228 The snow-capped Sierra Nevada Mountains. These mountains 
rise above the irrigated and fertile fields of California, to snow- 
covered heights which have given the range its name. See 236, 
237, 238 showing the fruit industry of California. 

276 The snow-fields and glaciers of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. 

195 Owing to the considerable altitude, temperatures below freezing, 
and snowfalls, occur in the Yellowstone National Park even 
during the tourist season. 

191 Freshly-fallen snow in Yellowstone National Park. 

102 The Blue Ridge, a " temperate zone " mountain range of moderate 
elevation. Many lowland crops will grow here. The upper 
slopes of such mountains (103) are still largely forested. 

388 Haying on the lower slopes of the Bavarian Mountains. Play is 
often an excellent crop on mountain slopes, where climatic and 
soil conditions are less favorable for cereals than they are on 
the lowlands. 

427 Glacier des Bossons fed by the snows of the high Alps, Chamonix, 

France. Glaciers not infrequently come down from the cold 
upper slopes and summits of lofty mountains into the inhabited 
and cultivated valleys below. 

444 The trees and flowers of the valley, and the eternal snows of the 

upper mountain slopes, Switzerland. A striking illustration ol 
the close proximity of very different vertical climatic zones. 

445 Swiss mountain homes: The roofs often weighted down with 

stones to prevent damage by high winds. Wood, for fuel during 
the long and cold Alpine winter, is piled against the house. 
448 The impressive scenery of the Swiss Alps : The Matterhorn. 
This mountain rises far above the fertile and inhabited valleys 
and lower slopes. 

446 A glacier among trees and fields, Switzerland. From the eternal 

snow and ice of the high Alps, glaciers often descend so far 
down the slopes that they are surrounded by trees and grass, 
forming: a striking picture of contrasted climatic conditions. 

428 Famous Mer de Glace (River of Ice), Chamonix, France. 

460 The thickly settled lowland, with favorable climate, and the de- 
serted mountains, in the Austrian Tyrol. Innsbruck. 

408 A fertile cultivated valley among bare and rugged mountains, Nor- 

way. Oats are raised in this valley, while the mountain sum- 
mits are seen to be snow-covered, and trees grow on the lower 
slopes. In a rainy climate, like that of this region, it is difficult 
to dry the grass for hay. The grass is put in thin, narrow piles, 
held up by poles, so that the wind can blow through it. 

409 Snow-covered mountains rising above a pine forest, Norway. 

322 A lake, high in the Andes, near the snow-line, fed by melting 

snows, Laguna del Inca. 

323 A station on the Transandean Railroad, between Chile and Ar- 



120 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 

gentina far above the cultivated lowlands and valleys. See 324 
taken at a lower level, and showing a considerable contrast in 
climatic conditions. 

525 Fuji-Yama, Japan. This mountain, 12,400 feet high, is snow- 
capped in winter. At its base and on its slopes there are culti- 
vated fields. 

213 Bare mountain slopes in a region of deficient rainfall, Wasatch 
Mountains, Utah. Compare 102 and 388 where, with heavier 
rainfall, there are trees. 

413 The rugged slopes of northern Norway. Here, although the ele- 
vations are small, the climate is too severe for farming. The 
people (Laplanders) occupy themselves with hunting and fish- 
ing, and keep herds of reindeer. 

430 Moderate elevations used as building sites, Cannes, France. The 
slopes of the hills along the famous Riviera district of France 
and northern Italy are much used for health and pleasure re- 
sorts, and are often dotted with beautiful residences. 



8. GEOGRAPHY BY NATIONS 

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
By E. M. LEHNERTS, A.M. 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT AND PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY 
AND GEOLOGY, HUNTER COLLEGE, NEW YORK CITY 
LECTURER IN GEOGRAPHY, TEACHERS COL- 
LEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

Political geography is one of the difficult subjects to teach 
because of its variableness. Mathematical geography is as 
fixed as the sun and the earth ; physical geography is, in its 
laws, unchanging, but political geography changes continually. 
Boundaries change, colonies are gained and lost, governments 
are overturned and reorganized. Political geography is as 
changeful as man. 

Governments today are world-wide. They rule great 
ranges of classes and people and must be adapted to innum- 
erable conditions. It is interesting to note the extent and dis- 
tribution of each great nation's possessions and the funda- 
mental principles of the government which must fit them all. 
Perhaps the greatest tendency in modern life is toward 
democracy. It seems to float in the very air. Great nations 
are giving even to their far-off colonies some participation in 
the ruling power. Notice, for instance, the Dutch in Java, 
the Australian Commonwealth, the Americans in the Philip- 
pines. All the world is learning that government is for the 
benefit of the people " deriving its just powers from the con- 
sent of the governed." 

With textbooks, paging and distribution of material are 
necessarily fixed, and the world-wide application of one gov- 
ernmental system is difficult to be shown. But stereographs 
and slides can be combined and recomfcined. For instance, 
when a child can see 130 stereographs picked out of 600 he 
will have visual teaching that the British Empire includes one- 
quarter of the globe, and when he studies the different parts 
of this Empire, he will know better than words can tell what 
is the result of British rule. 



122 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

*Best of all, these Keystone Views give us people in their 
daily life, and children will surely get from the pictures that 
government helps to make life what it is, and that, in turn, 
every man helps to make government, not for himself alone, 
hut for countless men, perhaps half way round the globe. 
The stereoscopic views and slides can be used to help children 
to realize the importance of the individual in the welfare of 
the nation. 

THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS 

The United States has made such rapid progress in area, population 
and wealth, that it is frequently spoken of as synonymous with Amer- 
ica. The reasons for this remarkable growth and development are 
many and complex and include geographic, historic, economic, indus- 
trial, racial, military and other causes. 

The geographic location of the United States constitutes a great and 
far-reaching advantage, and one which will become more and more im- 
portant as the nations of the world develop and their needs increase. 
Not only does the United States occupy the best part of the continent, 
but it is so placed on the globe as to lie between the populous regions 
of Europe and Asia and within favorable commercial distance of most 
of the countries of the rest of the world — an advantage made all the 
more effective by the possession of excellent harbors on three coasts, 
the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacific. 

Nature was generous when she endowed the United States. Fertile 
soils and favorable climates produce unequaled agricultural wealth ; 
great forests furnish building material and fuel; abundant water powers 
offer unmeasured energy which will work for mankind long after coal 
is gone; unrivalled deposits of minerals and ores pour out vast and 
varied treasures. These and many other bounties of nature stimulate 
man to greater effort and reward him better here than in any other 
country on the globe. 

Tt remained for man to multiply nature's gifts: and this he accom- 
plished by means of inventions. Improved farm machinery and meth- 
ods of agriculture greatly increased the yield per acre and the output 
of the country : the roller mill, cotton gin, and better machines for the 
manufacture of flour, cloth, etc., increased the demand for the raw 
products and their value and usefulness in the finished state; railways 
furnishing quick transportation brought producer and manufacturer to- 
gether, opened otherwise inaccessible regions, and, together with the 
waterways, made for national union and prosperity. Add to this the 
influence of the school, the newspaper, the telegraph, and the telephone, 
and consider that this is a land of peace and good will to all, that it is 
a land of liberty and the home of a happy and prosperous people, and 
its remarkable growth is seen to be but the logical result of many and 
powerful causes, which, continuing to function in the future, are des- 
tined to bring even greater prosperity and happiness to the nation. 



UNITED STATES 123 

The government of the United States is a logical development of 
English law and custom along democratic lines. Its fundamental ideal 
is self-government and individual responsibility. Wherever the stars 
and stripes float, there the people must rule themselves. In the Philip- 
pines the people are being trained for self-government either for inde- 
pendence or real union. This ideal of the United States has been an 
inspiration to the world. Other countries have followed more or less 
closely where America leads. 

87 The United States is governed by laws made by Congress. 

88 Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 

91 The laws are enforced by a President. 

92 A Cabinet of ten members chosen by the President advise and 

assist him. 

89 A Supreme Court which passes on the constitutionality of a law 

is a distinctive feature of the United States Government. The 
federal government makes the laws which apply to the entire 
United States. 
8 Each of the forty-eight states has a legislature which makes state 
laws, and a Governor who executes them. Also, each state has 
a system of state courts. 
28 The people of the United States believe in self-government; so 
each county, city and township has its own local government 
which has almost entire control of local matters. 

243 to 246 Alaska; 259 to 261 Hawaii are organized territories. Each 
one has a governor and judges appointed by the President and 
a legislature chosen by the people. Hawaii asked to be admit- 
ted to the United States. Citizens of territories are citizens 
of the United States with all the rights and privileges. 
87 Each territory has one representative in Congress who may take 
part in debate but has no vote. The laws passed by the terri- 
torial legislature may be revoked by Congress. 

257, 258 Porto Ricans are United States citizens since 1917. They 
elect their own legislature. They have a representative in 
Congress who may speak from the floor but not vote. Their 
Governor is appointed by the President. 

546, 547 The Philippines also are governed largely by themselves. 
They are represented on the council and have their own legis- 
lature. They also have a representative in Congress without 
the vote. The Governor is appointed by the President. 

548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553 The Philippine common people are back- 
ward. It is the intention of the United States to educate them 
so that they may develop into a self-governing people. 

554 Guam is governed by a naval officer stationed there. 

295, 299 Cuba is a protectorate of the United States. It is a republic 
with its own president and congress. It may not make any 
treaty without the consent of the United States, who in turn 
guarantees protection and a stable government. 



124 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 



MEXICO 

280 to 290 Mexico is in form a republic with a government modeled 
after that of the United States. 

281, 284, 285 The common people of Mexico are very ignorant, so 
that popular government is not so easily carried on. Also, the 
Mexican people are a mixed race of Spanish and Indian blood. 
Lacking the centuries of evolution they do not handle the demo- 
cratic ideals of government so readily as do the people of the 
United States. This is true of all Latin American countries. 

281, 282, 283 The city of Mexico is the capital of Mexico. Here 
Congress meets and here the President resides. 

CENTRAL AMERICA 

292, 294 The common people of the Central American states are so 
ignorant that the governments (republic in form) are very 
unstable. Revolutions are very common and very destructive. 
The common people have little share in the government. 

247, 248, 256 The State of Panama is progressing rapidly, owing to the 
United States' occupation of the Canal Zone. 

BRAZIL 

Brazil is almost as large as the United States and has a population of 
about 24,000,000. The language of the country is Portuguese. It is a 
federal republic with a constitution based upon that of the United 
States. 

306, 308, 311 The people of Brazil are mostly of Spanish, Portuguese 
or Italian descent. There are great numbers of Germans in the 
southern part. The people of the interior are mostly Indians. 

304 Bahia; 308 Sao Paulo. Only the coast cities have any real sys- 
tem of education. 

305, 307 At Rio de Janeiro, the capital, the President resides and here 
the national Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of 
Representatives, meets. The government is almost entirely de- 
centralized. 

ARGENTINA 

Argentina is one of the most progressive countries of South America. 
Lying in the temperate zone with good grain and grazing land, it has 
attracted European immigration. The Republic has very liberal immi- 
gration laws. The constitution is modeled closely upon that of the 
United States and the entire system of government is almost identical 
with our own. 

314, 316 Buenos Aires is the federal district. 

315 The government buildings are where Congress meets to make the 
laws of the nation. A President, Senate, House of Representa- 
tives have almost the same power as in the United States. 



CHILE — BRITISH EMPIRE 125 



CHILE 

The Chilians are sometimes called the " Yankees of South America." 
They are a progressive people, rapidly advancing in commerce and in- 
dustry and in government. 

324 Santiago is the capital of the Republic of Chile whose constitu- 
tion is patterned after that of the United States. 
326, 327 An active trade furnishes communication with the rest of the 
world and is the main reason for Chile's progressiveness. 

328 There are numbers of Indians not yet touched by civilization. 

PERU 

332, 333 These pictures show that Peru is using the newest farm 

machinery, a sure sign of progressiveness. 
334 Her rich mines have attracted men from all over the world and 

here again we see modern machinery. 

329 to 334 Peru is a republic, formed on the United States as a 

model. It has a President, a Congress with two houses and a 
Supreme Court of Justice just as we have. Local affairs are 
under the control of the federal government. 

VENEZUELA 

339, 341 There are very few pure whites in Venezuela and very few 
pure negroes. Most of the people are a mixed race of Spanish 
and Indian or negro. They are mostly very ignorant and so the 
government laws are poorly executed. In general the courts 
are dilatory and ineffective. 

340 Halls of Congress. The government is a republic, modeled after 
the United States, but not so successful in its administration. A 
President and Congress are the head of the government. 

338, 339, 340, 341 Only the large cities have any educational advan- 
tages. 

THE BRITISH EMPIRE 
Great Britain 

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland comprises an 
area of 121,390 square miles, or about the size of the state of New 
Mexico, and contains a population of 45,400,000 or nearly equal to one- 
half of the total population of the United States. 

The British Empire contains 12,800,000 square miles of land and 
439,700,000 inhabitants, or about one-fourth of both the total land area 
and the total population of the world. Approximately half of these 
possessions are situated in the northern hemisphere and half in the 
southern ; and so widely distributed are the various portions that almost 
every variety of climate and soil occurs, and almost every kind of 
oroduct and natural resource can be furnished. 



126 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

The geographic foundations for the growth and development of this 
vast empire were laid in the geologic past when, in the fashioning of 
the earth's surface, two islands, now known as Great Britain and Ire- 
land, were set apart from the mainland and so placed in the seas as to 
he in the center of the land hemisphere of the glohe and opposite and 
nearer to North America than was any other portion of Europe. Na- 
ture, which had previously stored great coal and iron deposits in the 
larger of the two islands, then indented their shores with good har- 
bors, stocked the surrounding seas with abundant fish for food, and 
planted great forests in the part now called England. 

Each of these provisions of nature had an important bearing on the 
history of the British Empire, but their influences developed very 
slowly. At first, owing to the weakness of the Britons and the strength 
of their enemies, the water barrier was not sufficient to protect them 
against invaders. Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes and Normans came, 
conquered, and left their impress. But the island position in time de- 
veloped a sturdy seafaring people, fishermen, traders, explorers, brave 
navigators, and daring sailors destined to become the masters of the 
seas, a distinction which they attained by the destruction of the Spanish 
Armada in 1588, and again renewed by their victory over the French 
fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. 

The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 was an event of far- 
reaching importance for the British Isles. Heretofore they had occu- 
pied an unimportant position at the very end of the known world. 
Thereafter instead of being on the outskirts of Europe, remote from 
the commercial activities of the Mediterranean and the continent, they 
became the geographic center of the land hemisphere of the world, a 
point of vantage whose importance increased as the nations and coun- 
tries of the earth developed. 

Britain's nearness to North America, her love for adventure and ex- 
ploration, her remunerative attacks on the gold-carrying galleons of 
Spain, and the lure of the imagined wealth of the New World, stimu- 
lated her seamen, shipbuilders, explorers, navigators, sea fighters, and 
colonizers, and raised England in less than a century from a second- 
rate maritime power in 1492 to the supremacy of the seas in 1588. We 
may, therefore, date the first steps in the building of the British Empire 
from the time of Queen Elizabeth and the founding of the American 
colonies. 

Another factor of immense consequence and one that must be con- 
sidered in connection with the island position and world central location 
of the Britisli Isles, is the fact that the oceans are not land-enclosed 
but are all connected with each other by water. Because of this 
continuity of the oceans, the sea routes led to all lands in all parts 
of the world and were safer, quicker, and cheaper than land transpor- 
tation, and, indeed, for centuries the only transportation that could 
reach many of the distant countries. 

Gradually the tide of trade turned from the Mediterranean to Eng- 
land's ports; her ships of war held the seas and her vessels of trade 
carried most of the world's merchandise. Growing colonies sent raw 



GREAT BRITAIN 127 

products and demanded manufactured goods. Manufacturing estab- 
lishments grew up and flourished, and, thanks to British skill and in- 
vention and to the possession and low cost of coal and iron, Britain's 
factories soon surpassed those of any other country. 

The growth of so large an empire was necessarily slow and not in- 
frequently disputed by rival nations. But over all her continental com- 
petitors Great Britain had one immense advantage — her geographical 
position as an island with no land boundary to guard. The effect of 
this was seen in three ways: The British were often able to hold aloof 
from continental wars and to increase their foreign possessions and 
trade by sea, while their rivals were busy on land fighting one another ; 
secondly, the British have for several centuries been able to safeguard 
their islands by means of naval power and so have saved their country 
from the wasteful destruction to which the other nations of Europe 
have been so often exposed; and, thirdly, naval supremacy having 
guaranteed the safety' of her shores, Britain found it unnecessary to 
maintain a large standing army, and was thus enabled to turn a larger 
proportion of time, energy, and wealth, and almost all of her entire 
man power toward the development of industries and trade. 

A greater danger than either the Spanish Armada or Napoleon's fleet 
at Trafalgar threatened Britain's maritime supremacy at the beginning 
of the 19th century. All ships were built of wood and England's 
forests were exhausted. It had become necessary to buy and bring 
timber from the Black Forest, via the Rhine, and from the Scandinavian 
countries. Tt is doubtful whether Britain could have competed suc- 
cessfully with the shipbuilding of other countries had it not been for 
the discovery that steel and iron made better ships than wood. Great 
Britain fortunately possessed vast coal and iron deposits near each other 
and near the sea, and found herself able to build more and better ships 
and at smaller cost than any other nation. Her supremacy of the seas 
remained assured. 

While geographic factors and historic events formed a favorable 
foundation for the growth and development of the British Empire, the 
credit for its accomplishment is primarily due to the British people. 
Indeed, it is doubtful whether any other nation similarly placed could 
have accomplished as much. The vast empire was not only built, but 
it was built so well as to hold together in stress and storm, although 
composed of diverse peoples and scattered over the whole earth. In 
this remarkable union is reflected the British genius for colonization and 
government. 

The English language is spoken by more people than any other Euro- 
pean tongue. The sun never sets on the British Empire ; for her 
possessions encircle the globe. Britain is mistress of the seas, for her 
ships of war have ruled the waves since the days of the Spanish 
Armada, and her vessels of trade have carried the bulk of the world's 
merchandise since the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In times of war and 
of peace England's power has extended to the remotest parts of the 
earth. 



12S POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

347 Liverpool; 348 London. The many harbors of England made her 
a seafaring nation. She developed a great merchant marine 
and a great navy. She became a great maritime power, " Mis- 
tress of the Seas." 

262 to 279 Canada and Newfoundland; 301 Jamaica; 499 to 508 India; 
513 Hongkong; 558 to 569 Egypt; 570 to 574 British East 
Africa; 575 to 578 Rhodesia; 579 to 584 South Africa; 585 to 
591 Australia and New Zealand. These possessions are so scat- 
tered that every variety of climate and soil occur and almost 
every kind of product and natural resource. The English lan- 
guage is spoken by more people than any other European tongue. 
Many of these colonial possessions are completely self-govern- 
ing, organized with a constitution modeled on that of the United 
States. This was the lesson England learned from the American 
Revolution. England has gained and held many of the strategic 
positions of the world. This in part accounts for her expansion. 

439 Rock of Gibraltar; 558 Alexandria; 559 Suez Canal. These 
strategic positions give England control of the Mediterranean 
and most of the trade with Asia. 

561,569 The Nile. The occupation of Egypt gives an entrance from 
the north to the heart of Africa. 

582 The possession of Cape Colony allowed the British to spread out 
over and absorb South Africa. This was the key which enabled 
them also to control the trade of this part of the earth. 

513 Hongkong is a British possession and a strategic point for influ- 
encing affairs in the East. 

301 Jamaica furnishes a naval base and a strategic position from which 
England finds entrance into Western affairs. 

347 Liverpool, Eng. ; 351 London, Eng. ; 365 Edinburgh, Scot.; 375 

Cork, Ire.; 381 Belfast, Ire.; 266 Quebec, Canada; 585 Sydney, 
Australia. British people as a whole are noted for independence 
of character, for sagacity, courage, enterprise and perseverance, 
and for respect for law and love of justice. These sterling quali- 
ties have enabled British manufacturers, merchants and ship- 
builders to gain preeminence over all other nations in trade and 
material prosperity. 

348 to 352 London is the capital or governmental center of the British 

Empire. 

352 The King and Llouse of Lords remain a part of the British gov- 
ernmental form but the real power is held by the House of 
Commons elected by the voters. The British Empire is really a 
democratic government retaining a monarchic form inherited 
from past ages. The king holds his place by the good will of 
the people. 

365, 366. 367 Scotland united with England under the crown when 
James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown and became 
James I of England. 

352 The Scotch have members both in the House of Commons and in 
the House of Lords. 



CANADA — INDIA — AUSTRALIA 129 

374, 375, 377, 378 South Ireland has wanted home rule. 
381 North Ireland has objected to home rule. 

363 Welch people have all the rights and privileges of English sub- 
jects. 

Canada 

262, 264, 267, 273, 277 Canada has a Governor-General appointed by the 
King of England, five years, also a Parliament of two houses. 
Senators are appointed for life by the Governor-General. The 
members of the House of Commons are chosen by the people. 
The lower house has the real power. 

262 Nova Scotia; 264, 267 Quebec; 273 Manitoba; 277 British Colum- 
bia. Each province has almost complete local government. 

India 

499 to 508 In India fewer than 6500 British officials rule over three 
hundred millions of men. 

503 Delhi is the capital. All the states of India are under the rule 

of a Governor-General in Council. The Governor-General, 
oftener called the Viceroy, represents the British sovereign and 
has supreme civil and military power all over India. 
501 Buddhists ; 503 Moslems. The Council has had both Buddhist and 
Moslem members. An attempt is being made to give the natives 
some representation in their own government. 

504 Minor officials are largely natives. 

506 Kashmir. Native states, as a rule, are governed by native princes 
with the help of British political officers appointed by the 
British government and residing at their courts. These rulers 
possess armies and revenues of their own but are not allowed 
to form any alliances. 

509 Burma since 1886 is a part of British India with a Lieutenant- 
Governor and Council. Formerly, it was an absolute monarchy 
whose king was called " The Lord of the White Elephant." 

Australia 

585 The people of Australia are mostly of British origin. 

585 New S. Wales; 586 Victoria; 588 South Australia; 589 Queens- 

land ; 590 Tasmania. These states with West Australia make 
the Commonwealth of Australia proclaimed Jan. 1, 1901. 
587 Melbourne was made the capital of the Confederation until a new 
capital in a federal district could be built. Here the Australian 
Parliament meets. Parliament consists of a Governor-General 
representing the King, a Senate and House of Representatives 
elected by the people. The government is modeled largely after 
that of the United States. 

586 Victoria ; 590 Tasmania. Each state has a complete local gov- 

ernment of its own. 
585 The Commonwealth of Australia maintains an army and a fleet. 



130 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

New Zealand 

591 New Zealand also has a Governor-General representing the Crown ; 
a Legislative Council chosen by the Governor in Council and a 
Legislature chosen by the people. New Zealand has made many 
experiments in government ownership and other socialistic ex- 
periments which have been very interesting to students of gov- 
ernment all over the world. 

Egypt 

558 On Dec. 17, 1914, Egypt became a British protectorate. The 
Khedive who sympathized actively with the Germans in the 
World War was deposed and Hussian Kemal was made ruler 
with the title Sultan of Egypt. 

559, 567, 569 For many years the British had practical control over 
Egypt and have done much to advance the welfare of the peo- 
ple. The Great Dam at Assuan is an example of what England 
has tried to do. In the change Turkey really lost nothing but 
prestige. 

560 Cairo is the seat of government. Here the Sultan resides. Eng- 
land sends a High Commissioner of Egypt who is in reality a 
Viceroy with governmental power. He works through the 
Sultan and his Council. 

561, 562, 563, 564 Egypt, under Turkish rule, has made very little or no 
progress. It remains to be seen what England can do. 

British East Africa 

570, 572 The British have a nominal control also of Uganda and other 
lands lying between Egypt and South Africa. In this market 
will be seen the marks of British rule. The change from sav- 
agery to civilization is necessarily slow. 

571, 573 The country is a source of present wealth and will develop 
as civilization progresses. 

Union of South Africa 

580 The treaty of peace which ended the Boer War was signed, May 
31, 1902. This gave the Transvaal (the Boer Country) to the 
English. In Dec. 12, 1906, the Transvaal was granted a self- 
government. The experiment succeeded. 

579 to 584 The Union of South Africa was proclaimed, May 31, 1910. 
This Union was planned and made by the people of the Trans- 
vaal, Natal, Orange Free State and Cape Colony. It was granted 
without change in the proposed constitution. Such things show 
the democratic tendencies of the British government. 

582 Capetown is the meeting place for the parliament but Pretoria is 
the seat of government. A parliament chosen by the people and 
a Governor-General representing the King of England form 
the government. Each state has a local government of its 
own. 



RHODESIA — FRENCH REPUBLIC 131 

Rhodesia 

575, 576, 577, 578 Rhodesia is under the control of the British South 
African Company. They have a Council with six members 
chosen by the Company and seven elected by the people. Provi- 
sion is made for the entrance of Rhodesia into the Union of 
South Africa but it is not yet considered ripe for self-govern- 
ment. 

THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 

France comprises 207,127 square miles and 39,602,000 inhabitants. 
Her foreign possessions aggregate 4,100,000 square miles and 45,000,000 
inhabitants. 

The geographic position of France is more favorable than that of 
any other European country except Great Britain. France is located 
in the heart of west-central Europe and is, therefore, connected by land 
with the nations and industrial centers of the continent. She possesses 
an adequate number of good harbors, and her shores face both the 
Atlantic and the Mediterranean. This gives her direct access to the 
world's most favored ocean routes to both the Far West and the 
Far East. 

France lacks the insular security of Great Britain, but is fortunately 
almost encircled by natural boundaries. These promote national unity 
and provide a first line of defense for the country. This is particularly 
true of the Pyrenees, Alps, Jura, Vosges, Rhine Highlands, and 
Ardennes. But important breaks and passes occur, such as the Valley 
of the Rhone, the gap at Belfort, the opening between the Vosges and 
the Rhine Highlands, the gorges of the Moselle and the Meuse, and the 
plain of Belgium. These openings facilitate railway and road connec- 
tions with the rest of Europe and furnish excellent commercial routes 
and military highways. 

The mineral wealth of France is considerable and has materially aided 
her industrial development ; but the latter would be far greater if her 
coal and iron deposits were larger. Much of the coal now used in her 
factories must be imported. For this reason the iron and textile indus- 
tries of France cannot equal those of either Great Britain or Germany, 
which supply all of their own fuel. Fortunately, the coal fields of 
France are scattered, and, though small, are most productive in the in- 
terior where importation of coal would be more difficult and expensive. 

The internal development of France has been favored by the compact 
shape of the Republic and by the character of the surface which is 
seldom seriously interrupted by mountains or impassable districts. The 
soil, too, on the whole is more fertile and the climate more favorable 
than that of her neighbors. The roadways are among the best in the 
world and are regarded with just pride by the people. The rivers and 
canals furnish a network of waterways, and, together with the railways, 
furnish ample means for transportation. 

423, 424 Paris ; 431 Nice, France. The people of France are thrifty, 
generous and brave. They are noted for their bright intelligence 



132 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

and for their sociability and hospitality. They are typically 
polite, cheerful, lively and frank, yet earnest of purpose and 
energetic. They are a refined and patriotic people whose long 
history is replete with accomplishments of the very highest 
order. 

421 to 425 Paris is the capital of the French republic. Here the Presi- 
dent lives and the meetings of National Assembly are held. The 
National Assembly is composed of the Senate and Chamber of 
Deputies. The officials of France are chosen by the people or 
their representatives and are responsible to the people. 

429 to 431 The local governments of France are under the central 
power. The government is highly centralized. 

427, 428 The Alps form an important barrier or natural boundary in 
the southeast and the Pyrenees separate France and Spain. 

426 Many cities of France have been destroyed by the war. 

391 Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. 

429 Marseilles ; 430 Cannes. France has harbors on the Mediter- 
ranean Sea and on the Atlantic Ocean. This gives her access to 
the world's most favored ocean routes both to the Far East and 
to the Far West and leads to her desire for colonies in Africa. 

556 Algieria is a French colony ruled by a Governor-General assisted 

by a Council. Laws for Algieria are made by the National 
Assembly at Paris. The country has advanced and prospered 
under French rule. 

557 Tunis was declared a French protectorate in 1881. The native 

Bey is the nominal head, assisted by a Council of nine ministers. 
Seven of these are French and two are natives. The real ruler 
is a resident Commissioner-General sent by the French gov- 
ernment. 
555 Morocco is an African sultanate under French protection. A resi- 
dent Commissioner-General sent by France represents the rule 
of that country. French rule means progress, civilization and 
greater personal security. 



SPAIN 

At one time Spain was the greatest colonial power in the world. 
Her foreign possessions included practically all of America from Oregon 
to Cape Horn, and Cuba and the Philippines were hers. An autocratic 
government alienated her colonists and the example of the United States 
incited them to seek independence and self-government. Spain fell 
back into the position of a minor power. 

434, 437, 438 The Spanish people are brave, proud and indolent. The 
spirit of adventure and conquest which incited them in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is no longer seen. Spain's gov- 
ernment is now a limited monarchy in which ideas of democracy 
are steadily growing. 
435 Madrid is the capital of Spain. The government is in the hands 



SWITZERLAND — BELGIUM — HOLLAND 133 

of an hereditary king. The legislative body or Cortez consists 
of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Voters are all males 
over twenty-five who are in full enjoyment of their civil rights 
and who have been citizens of a municipality. 

SWITZERLAND 

443, 44S, 446. 447 Switzerland has the most democratic government in 
the world. The Federal Council is the chief executive of the 
federation. It is elected triennially by the Federal Assembly, 
which is chosen by the people. The president of the Federal 
Council is the President of Switzerland. 

BELGIUM 

Belgium is what we call neutralized territory. That is, it was recog- 
nized as a nation whose independence all the great powers had pledged 
themselves to respect and to preserve. It, in turn, was pledged to strict 
neutrality and could make no alliances. When Germany asked permis- 
sion to go through - Belgium to France, neutral Belgium refused and 
later resisted their forcible passage. The other great powers were then 
bound to assist her. The violation of neutralized Belgium was one of 
the main factors in drawing other nations into the war. 
395 Brussels is the capital of Belgium. The government is a limited 

monarchy under a king and Parliament. 
397 River Meuse and Namur. In this region occurred some of the 

severe fighting of the World War, resulting in the conquest of 

Belgium. The restoration of that country is one of the main 

issues in the making of peace. 

THE NETHERLANDS 

Holland is a little country with a wonderful history. Hemmed in 
the lowlands at the mouth of the Rhine, its greatest prestige has come 
from the sea. Hollanders, or the Dutch, are great sailors and traders, 
their ships being found in every port in the world. As a people they are 
frugal, industrious and clean. They are very independent and very 
brave, maintaining their national life with great courage. 
399,400,401,402,403 Holland is a limited monarchy with a king and 
Parliament. The people are intensely loyal and interested in 
their government. 
545 Java is a Dutch possession. It is governed by a Governor-Gen- 
eral and a Council. The government as the Javanese see it, is 
carried on through a network of native officials to whom the 
foreign rulers are " elder brothers." There is a daily conference 
between the Dutch and the native chiefs and the Javanese lan- 
guage is always used, the Dutch not being allowed. In the ad- 
ministration of justice the Dutch are subject to laws of the 
Netherlands while the natives are under their own laws. Nearly 



134 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

everywhere in the modern world, we see the principles of self- 
government being applied. 

DENMARK 

Denmark occupies a strategic position at the entrance to the Baltic 
Sea and has in Copenhagen a very fine harbor. Both Germany and 
Russia have wished for the possession of this little country, yet neither 
one has been willing to allow any one else to have it. The importance 
of its position has safeguarded its independence. 

404, 405, 406 Copenhagen is the seat of the Danish government. Den- 
mark is a constitutional monarchy with a king and Rigsdag, or 
national legislature. The Rigsdag consists of a Landsthing, or 
upper house, part of whose members are chosen by the king, 
part by the largest taxpayers and part by the people ; and a 
Folkething, or lower house, chosen by the people. Voters are 
all male citizens over thirty years old not engaged in menial 
household service. 

NORWAY 

For many years Norway and Sweden were united under the same 
king, each with a parliament of its own. In 1905 they separated, Nor- 
way choosing a. prince of Denmark for its king, with the title Haakon 
VII. 

407 to 415 The people of Norway are wonderfully industrious and 
thrifty and very democratic. Women have complete suffrage 
and may hold office. The Storthing or parliament meets annu- 
ally in Christiania. 

SWEDEN 

416, 417 Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government, which is 
a constitutional monarchy. Here the king lives and here the 
Diet, or parliament, meets. The Diet is divided into two houses. 
Only males with property qualifications have full suffrage in 
Sweden. Women have municipal suffrage. 

ITALY AND THE ITALIAN COLONIES 

Italy has an area of 110,623 square miles, almost exactly the size of 
our State of Nevada, and a population of 35,240,000, or about equal to 
one-third of the total population of continental United States. Her 
colonies, Eritrea, Somaliland, and Libia tntal 595,000 square miles and 
1,379,000 inhabitants. 

Italy's favorable position in the Mediterranean has played an im- 
portant part in the remarkably interesting history of the kingdom and 
its distinguished cities. Even today they find themselves well placed 
both for sea trade via the Mediterranean and its outlets, and for con- 
tinental trade over the railway routes through the Alpine passes. 

Italy's mineral resources are too meager to favor any considerable 
development of the heavier manufactures such as iron and steel; but 



GREECE — GERMANY 135 

coal can be brought in ships from England for less money than it costs 
to send it from Pennsylvania to Duluth, water power is available, and 
raw materials such as silk and cotton are near at hand. For these 
reasons, the textile industries are rapidly growing. Moreover, certain 
events are pending which will tend to bring back to Italy a part of her 
former commercial prosperity and political prestige. These events are 
the rejuvenation of Russia and the probable opening of the Dardanelles; 
the awakening and development of the countries bordering the Medi- 
terranean. Italy is resolved to conquer the lands bordering the Adri- 
atic, and has larger plans for naval control of the Mediterranean; she 
feels a renewed self-confidence, intensified patriotic spirit, and increased 
national aspirations. 

450 to 459 Italy is a constitutional monarchy. Today she is showing a 
renewed self-confidence, an intensified national spirit and in- 
creased national aspirations. 

450 Rome is the capital. Here the king lives and here the Senate and 
Chamber of Deputies hold their sessions. Males over twenty- 
one who can read and write are voters. 

454 Naples; 455 Palermo; 458 Milan; 457 Venice. Italy has a splendid 
location for trade. 

GREECE 

475 to 480 Greece too is a limited monarchy, but the people are in con- 
trol. Greece is still a monarchy but the democratic tendencies 
in Greece are very strong. 

GERMANY 

The German Empire was formed in 1871, at the close of the 
Franco-Prussian War, by the union of the North German Confedera- 
tion and the South German States and the addition of Alsace-Lorraine. 
Afterward, the Empire acquired very extensive colonies in Africa and 
the Pacific, and in 1890 obtained by cession from Great Britain the 
island of Heligoland. The total area of the German Empire in Europe, 
before the war, was 208,830 square miles, and its population in 1905 
was 60,641,000. Its colonial possessions before the beginning of the 
World War comprised approximately 1,000,000 square miles of terri- 
tory and numbered about 12,000,000 inhabitants. 

The German Empire occupied a less favorable position, geographically, 
than either Great Britain or France. It had only one coast line and 
that faced northward, away from the commercial regions of the world. 
This coast is flat and sandy, often bordered by dunes or marshes, and 
there are no natural harbors except the estuaries of the rivers flowing 
into the North Sea and the lagoons at the mouths of the rivers flowing 
into the Baltic. Moreover, only a few of the harbors are of sufficient 
depth for ships of largest size, and most of the Baltic ports are closed 
by ice in the winter months. There is no doubt that Germany, ham- 



136 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

pered by these disadvantages, desired to extend her coast line along 
more favorable shores. 

On the landward side, geographical factors were more favorable. 
Germany was the most central of the larger countries of Europe and 
was, therefore, a natural distributing point for the continent. Her cli- 
mate is good, and her soils are on the whole productive and capable of 
sustaining a dense population. Her varied and extensive mineral de- 
posits, especially her rich coal and iron mines, furnished the basis for 
great and thriving industries and manufactures. Her numerous rivers 
and canals, aggregating over 9,000 miles of interior waterways, carried 
not only merchandise but men and ideas throughout the land, and, like 
the railways, formed a geographical and commercial bond of union for 
the Empire. 

The German people were industrious, frugal, and thrifty and are 
characterized by love for country, loyalty to the King, and obedience 
to authority. Intellectually less quick and versatile than the French 
and Anglo-Saxons, they are very persevering and thorough and had 
made rapid progress especially in the applied sciences. 

In education, industrial, commercial, political and military affairs, 
the German people evolved and developed a centralized system and 
organization of great efficiency but out of harmony with the democratic 
spirit of other countries. This Prussian system combined with over- 
reaching national aspirations and ambitions, and the clashing of eco- 
nomic and racial interests resulted in the great World War. 

Convinced that their government and culture were the best on earth, 
they deliberately planned to conquer the world and develop it accord- 
ing to their ideas. Their failure to win the war resulted in the over- 
throw of their government. Since their surrender, the country has 
been in a chaotic state with no settled, secure government. 

383 Reichstag-Gebaude. The German Empire was nominally a lim- 

ited monarchy. The legislative body consisted of the Reichstag 
elected by the people and the Bundesrath or Federal Council. 

384 The German Emperor had the executive power and increased it 

continually. He was responsible to nobody. The chief ex- 
ecutive officer was an Imperial Chancellor appointed by the 
Emperor and responsible to him instead of to the people's rep- 
resentatives. The governmental secretaries were responsible to 
the Imperial Chancellor. This made the Emperor practically 
independent and gave him autocratic power. 

385,386,387,388,389,393 The local government was almost entirely 
under the Central Power. Education, police and sanitation were 
national, not local matters. * 

394 Hamburg, Germany, had only one coast, a northern one facing 
away from commercial regions of the world. This coast is 
flat and sandy with harbors only on the mouths of rivers. 
Germany wanted more coasts. 

440,441,442,446,448 Alps form a natural boundary on the south. 

397 Belgium ; 399 to 403 Holland. Germany opened through the west 
to Holland, Belgium and France. 



AUSTRIA — HUNGARY — POLAND 137 

468, 469 Bulgaria ; 472, 473, 474 Turkey. She had steadily extended 

her influence southeastwardly and these countries joined her 

in the war. 
426 American troops repulsed the Germans at Chateau-Thierry. 
385 Coblenz and other German cities were held by the American Army 

of Occupation. 
391 Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. 
574 German East Africa and other colonial possessions were captured 

by the Allies. England gained most of them. 

AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 
Before the war, these two countries were united under the same 
king. They were very jealous of each other and kept themselves as 
separate as possible. When the central powers were defeated, their 
government collapsed and Austria and Hungary separated completely. 
Since then both nations have been in an unsettled condition, with 
monarchists, democrats, and bolshevists struggling to gain control. 

462 Vienna. Here the Austrian Reichsrat meets and makes laws for 

Austria. 

464 Budapest. Here the Hungarian Reichsrat meets to make laws 
for Hungary. 

466 Bosnia ; 467 Serbia ; 470, 471 Roumania. Austria-Hungary con- 
stantly encroached upon her weaker neighbors, trying to make 
them parts of the Empire. 

POLAND 

465, 485 Poland became an independent republic at the end of the 
World War. 

Czechoslovakia 

463 Czechoslovakia is a new republic which resulted from the World 

War. 

Jugoslavia 

466, Sarajevo, Bosnia; 467 Serbia. Jugo-Slavia is a union of small 
countries in the Balkans. 

TURKEY 

In the fifteenth century the Turks captured Constantinople and over- 
ran southeastern Europe. Gradually they lost their lands in Europe, 
and now the World War has caused them to lose all their Asiatic 
possessions. The Turkish government was an autocracy of the nar- 
rowest type, under it no progress was possible. During the World 
War their armies behaved with unspeakable cruelty, and some of their 
subject lands were nearly depopulated. Under the mandatory of civ- 
ilized nations, such as England and the United States, these nations 
are looking forward toward happier times. 



138 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

472, 473, 474 Constantinople has been the capital of Turkey. It is a 
place of such strategic importance that no strong nation has 
been willing to allow any other to have it; so the weak Turk- 
ish government has been maintained. It is now planned to 
internationalize it. 

492, 493, 494 Syria is no longer under Turkish rule. 

495,496,497,498 Palestine was taken from the Turks by the English. 
The Jews and Christians of Palestine have suffered from the 
cruelty of the Turks in the World War. There is a strong 
movement toward giving Palestine to the Jews. 

RUSSIA — THE UKRAINE 

Russia comprises 8,754,680 square miles, an area a little larger than 
the main land of North America, and a population of 176,000,000 or 
nearly as many people as live in North America and South America 
combined. Of this great total, 2,950,680 square miles, 140,841,000 
inhabitants belong to Europe and the rest to Asia. 

Many geographical and political factors combined to retard the in- 
ternal development of Russia, such as her great size and inadequate 
transportation facilities; ber unfavorable northern and southern bound- 
aries ; her severe climate ; her rivers, ice-bound in winter and of little 
value in summer because flowing into non-commercial seas ; her vast 
marshes, deserts, and tundras ; her lack of commercial seacoasts and of 
all-year open ports ; her large number of poorly assimilated races and 
tribes; her former bureaucratic and repressive government; her difficult 
language ; and her deficient educational system. 

Russia has had a stormy career since the war began. The auto- 
cratic government of the Czar was abolished and a republic was at- 
tempted. Before this could be firmly established the country came 
under the control of the bolsheviki and the soviet form of govern- 
ment. Finland and the Ukraine declared themselves independent, and 
Russian Poland has gone to make up Poland. Everywhere the gov- 
ernment is unsettled and conditions are chaotic. 

Russia is young, not so much in years as in emergence into liberty. 
She is peace-loving and may yet become a deciding factor in the ac- 
complisment of a permanent peace — the hope of the world. 

481 Fins; 486, 487, 488 Slavs; 485 Jews. Russia was peopled by 

many races speaking many languages wh^»*were never assim- 
ilated into one nation. The Fins were of Mongolian origin. 
The Jews were persecuted in every possible way. 

482 Petrograd was the capital of the absolute government. The 

Czar was head of both church and state. In response to a popu- 
lar demand a duma or popular assembly was given the people 
and many reforms were made. These were never carried out. 
In 1917 the Czar was forced to abdicate. 

481 Finland has become an independent monarchy. 

486, 487, 488 The Ukrainians have set up a government with Kief as 
their capital. 



CHINA — JAPAN 139 

CHINA 

China is another nation in a state of change. For centuries it re- 
mained stationary and only lately has awakened to move forward into 
modern life. Dense ignorance and the bondage of custom made change 
very difficult. 

513 to 524 The Chinese Republic dates from Feb. 12, 1912, when by 
edict of the Empress Dowager, the infant king Pu Yi abdicated 
the throne. Yuan Shih-kai was made President and in 1915 
dissolved parliament and announced his intention of becoming 
emperor. 
519 The Chinese rebelled, some provinces seceded and a revolution 

took place. Yuan Shih-kai died shortly after. 
516,518,519,521,523,524 These pictures will give some idea of the 
tremendous change which must take place before China becomes 
a self-governing nation in the American way. The American 
government is the ideal toward which the eyes of Chinese states- 
men are turned. 

JAPAN 

Japan is a limited monarchy whose royal family has held place for 
more than two thousand years. In the last sixty years, Japan has made 
wonderful progress in arts and industries as well as in government. 
526 Tokyo is the Japanese capital. The Mikado or king is the chief 
executive. A legislature of two houses makes the laws. There 
are strong democratic tendencies which strive to make the 
ministers responsible to the representatives of the people instead 
of to the Mikado. Tokyo, Osaka and Kioto have local gov- 
ernments. 
527, 528, 529, 530 The Japanese people are patient and persistent. They 
combine cheerfulness with quick-wittedness; are versatile; they 
have enterprise and originality as well as unexcelled powers of 
imitation. They are industrious, clean, kind, calm and brave 
and their women have always been free. 
521, 522, 524, 542, 543 Manchuria, Chosen and the Shantung peninsula 
have come under the control of Japan. 



9. EARTH NEIGHBORS 

By JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Ed. B., S.B. 

PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SILVER CITY, 
NEW MEXICO 

Morning after morning for unknown ages, the sun has ap- 
peared in a blaze of glory in the eastern sky, and in the eve- 
ning has disappeared with equal grandeur in the west. Night 
after night throughout the centuries people have marveled as 
the worlds have wheeled majestically across the sky. The 
Psalmist gave expression to the influence of these wonderful 
sights upon his life when he said : " The heavens declare the 
glory of God." 

But even to primitive man these phenomena were something 
more than wonderful spectacles. Some of the relationships 
between certain of the heavenly bodies and human affairs, 
were very early recognized. For many centuries people have 
realized their dependence upon the sun. Their daily lives 
have been in large measure ordered by it. The moon has 
illuminated man's pathway at night, and the stars have guided 
his wanderings upon the water as well as upon the land. 

The great telescopes of today, the spectroscope, and pho- 
tography have done much to enlighten man regarding the 
earth's neighbors. Many facts as to distances, dimensions, 
rotation, revolution, density and other conditions have been 
learned. 

Astronomical geography is one of the most important as 
well as one of the most interesting phases of geography. The 
range of the subject is great, including such topics as the 
form of the earth, rotation and revolution and their results, 
latitude, longitude, the zones, the tides and the solar system. 

The educational value of pictures as applied to human 
geography is generally recognized. As applied to astronomical 
geography it would seem at first thought as though only pic- 
tures representing the heavenly bodies could be used. This 
is far from being the case. There are many scenes in the 

140 * 



THE SUN 141 

Keystone " 600 Set " showing the influences of the earth's 
neighbors upon human affairs, a study of which will prove 
very valuable. 

I. THE SUN 

The sun is about 93,000,000 miles from the earth and it is more than 
a million times as large. It is in a gaseous condition and highly heated. 
It furnishes us with both light and heat. Without the sun it would be 
impossible for animals and plants to live on our earth. 
593 The sun, our most important earth neighbor. 
414 Midnight sun, North Cape, Norway. 



A. SOLAR EVAPORATION 

(l) Solar Evaporation as Related to Industry 

Solar evaporation is a very important process, as it is related to 
human life in many ways. The farmer makes use of solar evaporation 
in curing his hay and grain. Through this process the California 
rancher dries peaches, prunes and apricots, and converts grapes into 
raisins. In many parts of the world fish are spread out in the sun- 
shine to dry, and much of the salt that we use is obtained through 
solar evaporation. 

13 Drying codfish in the sunshine. The evaporation removes the 

water from the fish and the salt penetrates them. 
42 Solar method of evaporating salt brine. 

147 Bundles of oats that have dried in an Illinois field by evaporation. 

527 Rice drying in the shock. Rice, like other plants, contains a 
very high percentage of water. If the rice were stacked with 
this water in the stalks and in the kernels, the grain would spoil. 

244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 

310 Drying coffee in the sunshine, Brazil. 

531 Drying sardines, Beppu, Japan. 

325 Drying nitrate and sacking for shipment, Chile. 

(2) Solar Evaporation as Related to Cloud Formation 

High temperature, low humidity and a rapid movement of the at- 
mosphere favor evaporation. Thus, indirectly, solar evaporation is re- 
sponsible for precipitation. 

213, 276, 377, 452, 476 Cloud forms result from evaporation followed by 

condensation. 
441 Overlooking a sea of clouds, Switzerland. 
508 Looking down on clouds, Himalaya Mountains. 
102 Double layer of clouds. Fog differs from clouds only in being 

close to the ground. 



142 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS 

257, 408, 444 Clouds are both a result and an indication of weather 
conditions. Sailors, farmers, mountaineers and others who live 
out of doors much of the time are close observers of cloud 
forms. 

181,357,38 A cloudy day checks evaporation, and the farmer's hay 
or grain which has been cut and left in the field to " cure " 
does not dry rapidly. At such a time the wet clothes hung on 
the line dry slowly. 

(3) Overcoming Effects of Solar Evaporation 

Where solar evaporation is excessive, plant life is restricted, and 
the forms that grow under these conditions are adapted to store water 
and to reduce its loss. In many desert and semi-arid regions man has 
constructed reservoirs in which water is stored for the irrigation of 
these lands, which thus become highly productive. 

For Conditions Unfavorable for Plant Life, Water Relation to Leaf 
Forms, Light and Heat Relation to Leaf Forms and Food Storage see 
classification Plants and Plant Associations. 
209 Cactus plants so developed as to store water. 
210, 569 Storing water for irrigation. 

198 Cultivating field of sugar beets. Frequent cultivation checks the 
movement of the water from the soil to the surface. This re- 
duces the loss from evaporation. 

B. SOLAR ENERGY 

Although so very distant from us, the sun influences our daily lives 
in many ways. In fact if it were not for the sun, neither plants, ani- 
mals nor human beings could exist upon the earth, for the sun furnishes 
the heat upon which all life depends. 

Light is another blessing which we receive from the sun. But one- 
half of the earth can receive light at a given instant, and as the earth 
rotates upon its axis, there is a constant succession of day and night. 

(1) Influence of Solar Energy Upon Color of Skin 

The color of the skin is dependent upon certain pigment cells de- 
posited under the skin to protect the tissues from the rays of the 
sun. Everyone is familiar with the way in which the skin is tanned by 
even a brief vacation in the open. Long ages of exposure to the hot 
tropical or sub-tropical sun and especially under conditions of primi- 
tive life with the practical absence of clothing, naturally produced a 
deeply pigmented skin as found in the Black Race and to a lesser de- 
gree in other races. See classification on Races. 
261 Hula girls, Honolulu, Hawaii. 
562 The dark skinned natives of Egypt. 
572 Black people of tropical Africa. 
578 Natives of Rhodesia, Africa. 
592 Typical natives of New Guinea. 



SOLAR ENERGY 143 



(2) Effect of Solar Energy upon Dress 

280, 284, 285 Workmen dressed in white because of high temperature. 
503, 505, 506 Effect of solar energy upon color of garments and nature 

of headdress, India. 
529, 528, 530 Effect of solar energy reduced by use of wide hats, Japan. 
551,552 Filipino workman. Little clothing is needed where solar 

energy is great. 
572, 592 Effect of solar energy upon dress of African and New Guinea 

Island natives. 

(3) Protecting Plants from Excessive Solar Energy 

So intense is the heat and the light of the sun in the tropical zone, 
that some of the plants require shade for their most successful growth. 
297 Growing tobacco in shade of banana trees, Cuba. 
302 Picking coffee grown in the shade of banana trees. 

(4) Releasing Solar Energy of Past Ages 

Heat and light from the sun, and a supply of moisture, are essential 
for plant growth. Plants, therefore, represent stored-up solar energy. 
Much vegetation that thrived in past ages has been converted into coal 
and petroleum, thus storing vast amounts of solar energy. 
378 Peat, the first stage in the formation of coal. 

74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 

76 Miner drilling and laborer loading anthracite coal, Pa. 

79 Anthracite, soon to release its solar energy by burning. 
129 Coal from Pennsylvania to be shipped westward. 

69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin — oil field in Pennsylvania. 

70 Shooting oil well. 

122 Oil derricks near Beaumont, Texas. 

123 Crude oil stills, Port Arthur, Texas. 

C. INFLUENCES OF HIGH LATITUDE UPON HUMAN 
AFFAIRS 
Temperature decreases as distance from the equator increases. The 
climate in high latitudes is therefore very different from that in tem- 
perate and tropical regions. Because of this difference, the indirect 
effects of high latitude upon human life are very great. 
246 Relation between latitude and life in northern Alaska. 

343 Costumes of native Greenland girls. It has a cold climate. Very 

heavy clothing is needed, and this is in large part made from the 

skins of animals. 
279 Eskimo dog team on trail, Hopedale, Labrador. 
328 Indians on Straits of Magellan near Punta Arenas. The latitude 

is so high that the sun's rays always fall very slantingly. The 

weather is therefore chilly even in the summer. 

344 Hauling snow for water supply. Belgica Antarctic expedition. 

1897-99. 



144 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS 

346 Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, Dec. 16, 1911, in- 
specting ice field near glacier, Antarctic Ocean. Occasionally ex- 
plorers spend a winter or two in the icebound polar regions. 
Their vessels freeze in solidly as you see in view 344. The men 
secure some food by hunting, but they must be very careful not 
to get severely frost bitten. 

345 Showing a method of travel in polar regions and also a seal. 

D. FORM OF THE EARTH 

Until after Columbus discovered America, few people believed the 
surface of the earth to be curved. Now we know the earth is round and 
that night and day are caused by the earth rotating on its axis once 
every twenty-four hours. 

100 Curvature of the earth's surface shown by appearance of distant 

ships. By observing this picture you will see that all of the 

nearest war ship is visible. The one at the left of this one and 

farther away, appears to be much lower. The more distant the 

' ship, the smaller the part that can be seen. 

Since approaching and receding ships on all of the oceans 
present this appearance, this is taken as a proof that the sur- 
face of the earth is curved. Objects upon a very level plain ap- 
pear and disappear in the same fashion. 

E. LONGITUDE AND TIME 

353 Chronometer by which the world's time is measured, Greenwich, 
England. 

F. CHANGE OF SEASONS 

You have observed that during the winter the sun appears lower in 
the sky than it does during the summer. In winter the sun's rays fall 
upon the northern hemisphere more slantingly than they do in sum- 
mer. Because of this we receive less heat from the sun during the win- 
ter (although closer to it) than we receive during the summer. 

The change of seasons which occurs year after year with never fail- 
ing regularity, is due to the changing relations between the earth and 
the sun. As the earth rotates upon its axis, it is also revolving about 
the sun. When the sun's rays fall most directly in the northern hem- 
isphere summer occurs in that hemisphere, and winter in the southern 
hemisphere. 

49 American Falls in summer. During the summer the trees at 

Niagara Falls are in full leaf as you see in the picture. The 
grass is green upon the island, and flowers are in bloom. 

50 American Falls in winter. Winter works a wonderful transforma- 

tion at Niagara, as it does in most other places. The trees lose 
their leaves, the grass dies and is buried beneath the snow, and 
ice forms where the water does not flow too swiftly. When the 



THE MOON — PLANETS 145 

snow is quite wet it clings to the branches of the trees as you 
see in the picture, and sometimes breaks them. 
72 Woodcock on nest. The woods in early spring. 



II. THE MOON 

The moon is much nearer to us than is the sun, and yet its distance 
from the earth is nearly ten times as great as the circumference of 
the earth at the equator. 

Besides furnishing light to the earth at night, the moon is the chief 
tide producing power. Tides are related to the shipping interests in all 
parts of the world. You see, therefore, that the moon is related to our 
daily lives in more than one way. 



A. PHASES OF THE MOON 

For explanation of the Moon's Phases see descriptions for stereo- 
graphs and slides. 

594 The full moon. 

595 Moon at age of seventeen days. Taken three days after the time 

of full moon. 



B. INFLUENCE OF THE TIDES 

Twice each day the water in this, and other harbors on the sea coast 
rises and falls. This regular rise and fall of the water is called the 
tides. The tides are caused by the attractive power of the moon and 
the sun, the moon being the more important of the two. 

The difference between the height of the water at high and low tide 
is called the tidal range. The tidal range at Liverpool is 31 feet. 

347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. It is a floating pier, and it 
therefore rises and falls with the tide just as the ships do. Be- 
cause of this, goods and people can be easily loaded or unloaded 
at any time. 

III. PLANETS 

Eight large bodies and many smaller bodies revolve about the sun. 
These are called planets. The eight large planets named in relation to 
their distance from the sun are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, 
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 



146 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS 



A. MARS 

Mars is one of the most interesting of our neighbors. It is not so 
near the sun as are Mercury, Venus and the Earth, but it is much 
nearer the sun than are the other planets. A day on Mars is almost 
exactly the same in length as a day on the earth, but the year is 
nearly twice as long as ours. 

596 The planet Mars. See descriptive text on view. 

B. SATURN 

Saturn is immense in size. It is more than nine times as far from 
the sun as is our planet. It is interesting to know that the day on 
Saturn is less than half as long as our day, but the year is equal to 
about twenty-nine of ours. 

The rings shown are composed of countless meteors which are in 
reality very small moons. These extend outward to a distance of 
about 50,000 miles from the surface of Saturn. In addition, the planet 
has 10 larger moons. 

597 The planet Saturn, one of our distant neighbors. See descrip- 

tive text on view. 

C. URANUS 

This planet is at a tremendous distance from the sun, about 19 times 
as far as are we. It is faintly visible to the naked eye, however, which 
tells us that it is of great size. Uranus has 4 moons or satellites, two 
of which are shown. Comparatively little is known about this very dis- 
tant neighbor of ours. 

598 The planet Uranus and two of its moons. See descriptive text on 

view. 

IV. COMET 

Comets have been observed for many centuries. The people of olden 
times regarded them as fore-runners of evil, and as late as 1860 great 
numbers of people in Europe were terrified because of the appearance 
of a very bright comet. In one country a statement was issued to calm 
the fears of the people. It read as follows: "The star threatens; 
trust only God. He will make all right." Are you not glad that you 
can enjoy the beauty of the heavens, and that you do not believe that 
evil will follow the appearance of a comet? 
600 Morehouse's Comet. See descriptive text on view. 

V. METEOR 

It is believed that a meteor is a fragment of a disintegrated comet 
moving at a very great speed. When it approaches our planet near 



METEOR 147 

enough, it is pulled by the force of gravity to the earth. When it coit^ 
in contact with the earth's atmosphere, a great heat is developed by 
friction and the meteor burns up in whole or in part before striking tht 
earth's surface. 
599 Meteor in constellation of Orion. See descriptive text on view. 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 
INTRODUCTION 

By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. 

PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

The old fashioned view of history is that it is made up of 
the heaping together of a multitude of units ; it is supposed to 
be like a wall built of bricks and stones of varying size, every 
one of which must appear in the face; history should be 
something that can be memorized and recited like a multiplica- 
tion table. Wide-awake and modern teachers and writers 
nowadays look on history rather as a grouping of materials 
of many kinds, which are so laid together that all are used in 
the wall, while only the most striking are selected out of the 
immense mass and placed in view. 

This idea of what might be called " composite history " 
carries both pupil and teacher away from the notion that his- 
tory is simply a succession of personalities and events. His- 
tory of the modern type takes account not only of the leaders 
but of the mass of the people, notes not simply episodes buf 
tendencies. To the true historian of the United States, Com 
gresses, Presidents, Constitutions, statutes, legal decisions, 
wars, battles, sieges and treaties are only the external part, 
they are of value only so far as they illustrate the great theme 
of the nation's growth, the nation's mind and standards. 

The proper aim of all teaching of history is to make young 
people realize that their country in times past has been carried 
on by people like themselves. That involves making them 
familiar with the social and economic life of the past, as well 
as with political events. Modern historians recognize that the 
first necessity for a civilized community is that people should 
be able to make a living in the midst of a varied and confused 
life. Often the characteristic things are the everyday pur- 
suits. Raising corn is a more important part of the nation's 
activities than making rifles. The district school, as an insti- 
tution, has had more influence on the United States than the 
Supreme Court. The modern teaching must therefore touch 
many sides of the national experience. 

148 



HISTORY AND CIVICS — INTRODUCTION 149 

Word descriptions do not carry young minds very far. 
Hence nearly all school textbooks of history contain maps 
and illustrations. Flat pictures always require an allowance 
for perspective and proportions. The stereoscope, especially 
in the stereographic form of the Keystone Views, which 
brings out the detail in amazing clearness of perspective, is 
especially adapted to school use. The units of the slides or 
views can be combined and recombined so as to illustrate a 
great variety of interests, scenes and processes. 

For history, the Keystone system is especially convenient 
and helpful because it helps to weld together in children's 
minds the scene and the event. The Declaration of Inde- 
pendence means twice as much when the Liberty Bell stands 
out in relief. The economic side of slavery is emphasized by 
a picture of negroes working in the cotton fields. Our great 
dependency, the Philippines, is brought home to us by a few 
stereographs of the life of the Filipino peasants. 

Civics is a subject notoriously hard to make clear by pic- 
tures. It is worked out more in men's minds than in such 
episodes as the attack at Gettysburg or the capture of the 
Alamo. Nevertheless the application of government can be 
freely illustrated, in a great variety of subjects, such as the 
control of territory, the encouragement of agriculture, the 
limitation of fisheries, mining trades, and transportation. 

The method within which the Keystone Views can be 
worked has been developed in detail by the Committee of 
Eight of the American Historical Association, 1909. As the 
report puts it: " In order to secure satisfactory results, even 
a scholarly and sympathetic teacher needs suitable tools. * * * 
Books, maps, charts, objects, and pictures are absolutely neces- 
sary — the child craves more life. He likes movement. He is 
especially fond of the dramatic, the picturesque, the personal, of 
deeds of daring, of tales of heroism, of thrilling adventure. 
He cannot grasp the meaning of events, nor can he appreciate 
causal relations ; but he can understand certain simple facts, 
elementary ideas, the universal truths symbolized in stories, 
incidents, and episodes ; and these facts, ideas, and truths 
appeal in a moving way to his emotions, his imagination, and 
his will. To this end free use should be made of pictures, 
photographs, scrap-books, and blackboard illustrations, and 
something should be done with games and dramatization." 



10. FOREIGN BEGINNINGS OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

By HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF 
NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEB. 

The views in this section have been selected with the pur- 
pose of setting forth what may be called the foreign back- 
ground of American History. It is difficult to realize that 
all history is related, and that in order to understand the 
story of any nation we must trace its people with their habits 
and customs to their sources. 

For example, America was settled by people from Spain, 
England, France, Holland and other European countries. 
Every one of these nations derived its civilization largely from 
Rome and Roman influence can still be seen especially in gov- 
ernment. Now Rome, in turn, took her ideas from Greece. 
But civilization did not originate in Greece, for the Greeks 
learned very many things from the Phoenicians who had 
been influenced by the people of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley 
and by Egyptians who occupied the Valley of the Nile. 

Pupils in American History who follow only the course of 
events in the New World in the last four hundred years some- 
times fail to see that American history is really a continuation 
of a growth which had its beginning many centuries ago in 
the Old World. Each nation modifies what it receives to 
suit its own ideas and needs, and yet, in one sense we may say 
that the history of the United States and of every other mod- 
ern nation began with the beginnings of civilization. 

I. THE ORIENT 

Civilization first rose in the valleys of the Nile and of the Tigris- 
Euphrates rivers. The Egyptians and Chaldeans were therefore the 
teachers of the ancient East. Their arts and sciences spread by con- 
quest, trade and travel, entered Syria and Asia Minor and in time be- 
came the common possession of the Oriental people. 

150 



EGYPT — SYRIA 151 

a. Egypt 

561, 566, 564, 565, 568 Here we see the beginning of art and archi- 
tecture. The first pyramids were made of sun-dried bricks. 
About 3000 b. c. the Egyptians learned to cut blocks of lime- 
stone with their copper tools and thus they put together the 
first stone masonry. 

558 Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 b. c, it became the chief 
commercial city of the Orient where sea routes and caravan 
routes converged. Alexandria in ancient times was also a re- 
nowned seat of learning with a library and museum which at- 
tracted scholars from all parts of the civilized world. It was a 
central point from which learning of all kinds was spread over 
the world. 

b. Syria 

Lying between Egypt and the Tigris-Euphrates valley, Syria was 
overrun and conquered at various times by both people, so united both 
civilizations. The northern part was the home of the ancient Phoeni- 
cians, the first sailors, the first commercial people of the world, and the 
makers of the first alphabet from which all other alphabets have been 
derived. 

The southern part of Syria was occupied by the Jews from whom 
came our ethics and our religion. The Bible, both Old and New Testa- 
ments, was written by Jews and today the Bible is a direct influence in 
modern life. Today many Jews and Syrians have found homes in 
America. 

492 Beirut was one of the most ancient and important of the Phoenician 

settlements. It formed a center from which Oriental commerce 
and culture spread westward over the Mediterranean. The mod- 
ern city is connected with Damascus by a railroad across the 
Lebanon Mountains. 

493 Damascus, the " Pearl of the Orient " is one of the oldest cities 

in the world. It is frequently referred to in the Bible. It was 
situated on the old caravan route by which trade was carried on 
between India and China and the countries of Europe. When 
Southwest Asia was taken by the Mohammedan Turks, this cara- 
van route was closed to Christian Europe. Then came the search 
for a different route to India and China which resulted in the 
discovery of America. 

495 David, king of the Hebrews, chose for a capital the ancient for- 

tress of Jerusalem, which occupied a strong position on Mount 
Zion in the hill country of Palestine. Here he fixed the Ark, 
the sanctuary of Jehovah, and here his son Solomon raised the 
famous Temple, and here occurred many events in the life of 
Jesus, his trial and crucifixion. From David's time to the pres- 
ent Jerusalem has been a Holy City, first to the Jews, then to 
the Christians, and, finally, to the Mohammedans. 

496 The Christian religion with its high moral standards has had a 

wonderful influence on the life of the nations of the world. 



152 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS 

497 In the background the village of Nazareth, looking much the same, 
no doubt, as it did at the time of Christ. 

c. Asia Minor 

The culture of the Greeks and later the Christian religion spread 
through the countries of Asia Minor and later over Europe. 
489 The Greeks were the first to plant colonies on both sides of this 

narrow strait which separates Asia from Europe. 
491 Tarsus at the time of Christ was an important center of Greek 
learning and culture. Here lived " Saul of Tarsus," afterwards 
the Apostle Paul, who carried Christianity to the pagans, or Gen- 
tiles, of Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy. 

II. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 

Oriental civilization passed at length from the East to the West and 
centered in the basin of the Mediterranean. The situation of Greece 
at the threshold of Asia, with its best harbors and most numerous is- 
lands on the eastern coast, enabled the country early to receive and 
profit by all the culture of the Orient. Italy, on the other hand, looked 
away from Greece and the Orient toward Gaul, Spain, and northwest- 
ern Africa. Hence civilization, moving slowly toward the setting sun, 
reached Italy from Greece only at a late period of ancient history. 
Eventually, however, the extension of the Roman Empire over the bar- 
barian peoples of western Europe widened the area of the civilized 
world to the shores of the Atlantic. 

a. Greece 

Some writers go so far as to claim that every good thing in our west- 
ern civilization came to us through the Greeks. Literature, art, govern- 
ment, science, architecture, philosophy, all were highly developed in 
Greece and have come directly to the modern nations. Very many au- 
thorities claim that the Greek civilization was the best the world has 
known. 

475 In art, in literature, in science and in philosophy, the Athenians 
were teachers of the world. In Athens were the most perfect 
examples of architecture and sculpture ; drama, oratory, phi- 
losophy and poetry reached a degree of excellence that has never 
been surpassed. In Athens democracy was born. 

477 Next to Athens, Corinth was the most important commercial city 

in Greece. The Romans destroyed it in the second century B. c, 
but it was rebuilt by Caesar in 59 b. c. and became one of the 
great cities of the Roman Empire. At Corinth was established 
one of the early Christian churches. To the members of this 
church St. Paul wrote two letters which, under the title " Epistles 
to the Corinthians," form an important part of the New Testa- 
ment. 

478 At Olympia in southern Greece, the Olympian games in honor of 



THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 153 

Zeus were held every fourth year. Many splendid buildings in- 
cluding the Stadium for athletic contests, the Hippodrome for 
chariot races and the temple of Zeus, covered the site. Only 
Greeks were allowed to compete, but people from all over the 
world came to the games. Here treaties between nations were 
read, poems were recited, artists came to exhibit and to study 
the athletes as models and goods from all over the world were 
displayed for sale. When these visitors returned home they car- 
ried with them bigger and broader ideas, better knowledge of 
people of other countries and so civilization spread. 

b. Italy and Sicily 

Sicily was settled by Greeks and for a long period was the center of 
trade and learning in the west. It was finally conquered by Rome and 
became the first Roman province. 

During the Roman empire, the other cities of Italy were overshadowed 
by the dominant power of Rome, but during the middle ages such cities 
as Florence, Milan, Genoa kept alive and fostered learning and indus- 
trial arts and transmitted them to the modern nations. During the 
middle ages, Venice, Naples, Genoa and others were the great commer- 
cial centers of the world trading with the Orient. Very many great 
navigators, as Columbus, the Cabots, Verrazano and Amerigo Vespucci 
were Italians. When the trade of these cities was interrupted by the 
capture of the eastern routes by the Turks, they began to think of other 
routes and this resulted in the discovery of America. 

455 Palermo is the largest city and the commercial center of Sicily. 

From this port start most of the Sicilian immigrants to the 
United States. In medieval times Palermo was even more im- 
portant than now, for both the Moslems and the Normans made 
it the capital of their possessions in Sicily. 
454 Naples, the ancient Neapolis, was one of the first Hellenic colonies 
in Italy. From the eighth century b.c. onwards it formed a cen- 
ter of Greek culture and even today it possesses a large Greek 
population. Many Italians sail from Naples to make their homes 
in the United States. 

456 The Florentines in the Middle Ages were renowned for their bank- 

ing houses and manufactures. Florence was one of the cities 
which perfected banking systems and book-keeping. In Florence 
lived the Italian scholar Paolo Toscanelli to whom Columbus 
wrote for advice as to sailing across the Atlantic to Asia. 
Toscanelli replied with a letter and a map. Amerigo Vespucci 
for whom America is named also was a native of Florence. He 
lived in Cadiz, Spain, when Columbus started out. In 1501, in 
the service of the king of Portugal he made a voyage in which 
he touched South America. Verrazano, a Florentine navigator 
in the employ of France, sailed for America in 1524. 

457 During the Middle Ages, Venice became the greatest city of the 

Mediterranean region. She had many possessions and ships of 
every nation crowded her quays. Her merchants went every- 



154 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS 

where and her sailors were among the best in the world. Marco 
Polo whose writings had so great an influence on Columbus, was 
a Venetian. Also John Cabot the discoverer of the continent of 
America was a Venetian citizen in the English service. 

c. Rome 

The countries of modern Europe, with the exception of Russia, are 
parts of the old Roman empire and a very large part of law as we know 
it is derived from the old Roman law. The French, Spanish, Portuguese 
and Italian languages are almost purely Latin while English is, roughly 
speaking, about half Latin. 

Rome became also the center of the western branch of the Christian 
Church and from Rome came the influences which christianized the peo- 
ple of Europe. Every day, in untold ways we feel in our daily lives the 
influences of Rome. 

450 No other city fills so large a place in the world's history. 

451 St. Peter's is the largest Christian church in the world. It was 

partly to extend the Christian religion that Columbus made his 
voyages. 

d. Constantinople 

472, 473, 474 For many years Constantinople was the head of the Roman 
Empire and the Christian Church. The Emperor Justinian at 
Constantinople finally had the codification of the Roman law com- 
pleted. When the Turks captured Constantinople and the east, 
merchants of Venice and Genoa were compelled to look for other 
routes to China and the Indies. 

III. WESTERN EUROPE 

Within what had once been the Roman Empire new European nations 
grew up and rose to importance during the Middle Ages. At the close 
of medieval times came the discovery and settlement of America, a con- 
tinent whose aboriginal inhabitants could offer little resistance to the 
explorers, missionaries, traders, and colonists from the Old World. 
The Spanish and Portuguese in the sixteenth century followed by the 
French, English, and Dutch in the seventeenth century, repeopled 
America and brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded 
into a Greater Europe beyond the ocean. 

a. British Isles 

Many of the early explorers, like Drake, Raleigh, John Smith, were 
Englishmen. The original thirteen colonies of the United States were 
settled mostly by people from the British Isles. They brought with them 
their English ways of living, their English learning and religion, and 
especially their English theories and practices of law and government. 
These ideas had a new growth in America, new ideals developed and 
iow American democracy is spreading all over the earth. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 155 

347 Liverpool is the world's principal seaport and the terminus of many 

steamship lines, including those to the United States. The com- 
mencement of the prosperity of Liverpool dates from the latter 
part of the seventeenth century. 

348 London Bridge, London, England. 

350 In Westminster Abbey were crowned the kings who ruled the 

English Colonies until 1776. 

351 London during the nineteenth century was the money center of 

the world. 

352 Here and in the House of Commons were passed the Navigation 

Acts, the Stamp Act, the Townsend Acts and all the other bills 
which led up to the Revolutionary war which separated the 
United States from England. 

354 Shows the house, restored in 1857, in which was born the poet 

whose genius transcended national boundaries and made him a 
citizen of all the world. The three-hundredth anniversary of 
Shakespeare's death was appropriately observed in 1916 in the 
United States. Many of our early colonists came from homes of 
this kind to live in the wilderness in America. No doubt many 
early settlers in their log houses were homesick for the homes 
they had left. 

355 The cottage stands in substantially the same condition as when 

Shakespeare courted here his future wife. It is still occupied by 
a descendant of the Hathaway family. 

360 York, the ancient Eboracum, formed the capital of the Roman 

province of Britannia. In York Constantine the Great, whose 
conversion to Christianity paved the way for the triumph of that 
faith over paganism, was proclaimed emperor. Most of the very 
early colonists came from York. 

361 It must have been hard to leave a developed country with its homes 

and cultivated fields and come to a perfectly new, wild land. 

365, 366, 368, 372, 373 Among the early settlers in America were many 
Scotch people. With their thrifty ways they made very de- 
sirable citizens. 

374 Queenstown is a port of call fui American mail steamers and an 
emigration station of the British government. The terrible 
famine in Ireland in 1846 started a great emigration movement, 
and between that date and 1905 nearly five million people left the 
country. Most of them came to the United States. In recent 
years, however, the number of Irish emigrants has greatly de- 
clined. 

375, 378 There are said to be more Irish in America now than there 
are in Ireland. 

380 The Northmen, or Vikings, as they are often called, conquered a 
considerable part of Ireland during the ninth century The first 
cities on Irish soil, including Dublin and Limerick, were founded 
by the Northmen. 

b. The Netherlands 
New York was first settled by the Dutch w' ir >se influence is still felt. 



156 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS 

From among the descendants of these Dutch settlers have come very 
many of our prominent men, as for instance, Theodore Roosevelt. The 
Pilgrims before coming to America had taken refuge in Holland. 

399 Amsterdam is the capital. New York was first known as New 

Amsterdam. 
402 Thrifty, industrious and clean, the Hollanders have helped in the 
development of our country. 

400 Among Dutch seaports Rotterdam is second in importance only to 

Amsterdam. It was a Dutch vessel that brought the first slaves 
to America in 1619. 

c. Norway and Sweden 

The first people who came to America were Norsemen, led by Eric the 
Red, in 1000 a. d. They made no use of their discovery however. The 
cold climate and poor soil of the Scandinavian peninsula caused the 
people to become men of the sea. A greater influence came to America 
from the Northmen indirectly through England and France. Great 
numbers of Norwegian and Swedish immigrants have settled in western 
New York, Minnesota and the northwest. They are very prosperous. 
408, 409 Typical scenes in the country which sent out the Northmen. 
418, 419 Between 1638 and 1647, Swedish people established five or six 
trading posts along the Delaware ; but as the home government 
made no provison for their defense they were easily captured by 
the Dutch in 1655. 

d. France 

Cartier and Champlain were the first French explorers. People from 
France first settled Canada and the Mississippi Valley. Indeed the laws 
of Louisiana are based upon the French code instead of the English. 
France sent money and men to help in the American Revolution and 
later, inspired by the example of the United States, set up a republican 
form of government. 

421 Paris in Roman times was only a little settlement on an island in 
the Seine. The Romans called it Lutetia Parisiorum, the capital 
of the Celtic tribe of the Parisii. The city became the capital 
of the French kingdom in 987, when Hugh Capet, founder of the 
long-lived Capetian dynasty, became king of France. 

422, 424, 425 French people coming to America brought with them 
French ideas of architecture, art and science. Paris was the 
capital, the residence of the French kings who ruled so auto- 
cratically. French colonies in America had almost no self gov- 
ernment. 

e. Spain 

No European country has had greater influence upon the western con- 
tinent than Spain. The early discoverers and explorers were nearly 
all Spaniards or in the Spanish service and that nation obtained control 
of the lands from California to the Straits of Magellan. Later Spain 
lost all this territory yet it is still called Spanish America because the 



SPAIN — GERMANY — AFRICA 157 

Spanish language and customs prevail and the ruling people are either 

wholly or in part of Spanish blood. 

433 Shows the monument in honor of Columbus. Barcelona was an 
important city in the Middle Ages. Its merchant ships traded in 
the North Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. The dis- 
covery of America struck a blow at its prosperity, by trans- 
ferring commercial supremacy to the seaports of Western Spain. 
In the nineteenth century the city became again a leading center 
of Spanish trade and industry. 

436 The Alhambra is a wonderful building in Moorish architecture, the 
palace of the ruler when Granada was the capital of the Moorish 
kingdom in Spain. Columbus followed the court of Ferdinand 
and Isabella to the camp before Granada. He was in time to 
witness the surrender of the city. He beheld Boabdil, the last 
of the Moorish kings, sally forth from the Alhambra and yield 
up the keys to a Christian king and queen. Ferdinand and 
Isabella then listened to the plans of Columbus. 

f. Germany 

387, 388, 389, 390, 393 While Germans were not among the discoverers 
and explorers of America, German settlers began to come at a 
very early date, especially to Pennsylvania. Today a vast num- 
ber of American citizens are of German descent. 

383, 384, 385 The German autocracy and militarism have compelled the 
United States to enter the World War. 

g. Africa 

570, 572, 577, 578 The ten million negroes of the United States did not 
come from a civilized country as the white people did. At the 
time of their emancipation and enfranchisement many of them 
had not advanced very far in civilization. Here is a background 
for the " negro problem " which will take the best thought and 
work of the best people of both races if it is properly solved. 



11. FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN 

NATION 

By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. 

PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

GENERAL PURPOSE 

The purpose of this section is to introduce the pupil to the 
formative period of American history, extending from the 
earliest discoveries by Europeans to the organization of the 
federal government under the constitution of 1787. This 
naturally includes the physical background of American his- 
tory — the face of the country, then the original inhabitants, 
and finally some of the scenes of the Colonial and Revolu- 
tionary history. 

A. LAND 

A necessary foundation for the study of Colonial and later American 
history is some knowledge of the land in which we live, its scenery, its 
products and its capacities. The Keystone Views are rich in this kind 
of illustration. 

(i) Surface 

279, 117 Every kind of climate is found in the American Continent giv- 
ing a wonderful variety of productions. 

262, 38, 73 In the east, most of the land is undulating with broken 
country and numerous low mountains. 

102, 101 The eastern mountains are usually rather low, parallel ranges 
with flat tops. 
1,2,70,103,107,130 The whole area was originally heavily wooded 
except comparatively small " intervales " or flats. 

113 Trees had to be cut away. The early settler's home was the log 
cabin. 
2, 72, 189, 196, 232 All over the country wild game was very abundant. 
The beaver was especially sought. The settlement of Canada, 
the Great Lake region and the exploration of the Upper Mis- 
souri country were largely influenced by the trade in beaver 
furs. Wild animals were valuable for food both to the Indians 
and the early settlers. 
38,39,51,101 A plentiful rainfall causes full streams, but very few 
of the eastern rivers cut through the Appalachian ^'Vhland. 

158 



TREES — AGRICULTURE 1 59 

43, 48 The Mohawk River flowing east from the Lake region to the 
Hudson, made a valley through which a canal and railroads have 
been easily built. 
264, 265, 267, 157, 48, 154 The St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes with 
the canals which have been built form one of the greatest inland 
waterways in the world. 

49, 50 The most wonderful of all waterfalls, lying between Lake Erie 
and Lake Ontario breaks the navigation of the St. Lawrence 
system. Many interesting events of Colonial history are con- 
nected with these two lakes and falls between them, such as 
Champlain's and later La Salle's expeditions, Hennepin's visit 
and the French and Indian War. 

61, 170, 174, 120 The Mississippi River valley contains nearly a million 
square miles of land. The soil is fertile, climate suited to the 
growth of vegetation and communication was easy. No other 
land of its size is so well suited to the uses of mankind. 
3, 4, 69, 70, 76, 155, etc. A vast mineral wealth underlies a large part 
of the country. 

27,13,25,26,52,100,106,264,267 Splendid harbors encouraged com- 
merce. 

(2) Trees 

1 Timber was one of the important products of the New World. 

Masts and materials for ships and houses were exported from 

early times. New England built ships which traded in every 

port of the world. 
106, 107 The pine trees of the southern states yielded rich supplies of 

timber, turpentine, tar, rosin, etc. 
103 In Colonial times all the iron was smelted from charcoal made in 

such pits. 
130 Also the Indians taught them to make maple sugar. 
175 Apple trees brought from Europe were planted by the colonists. 

You can hardly imagine how they waited for the first fruit from 

these early trees. 

(3) Agriculture 

147 The earily colonists brought grains, such as wheat and oats, with 
them and they soon became staple crops. 

137, 184 The Indians showed them how to plant and raise corn, the 
native American grain. It became a principal food. 

112 Tobacco was the principal money crop of the South in Colonial 
times. In order to get a monopoly of the American tobacco 
trade. King Charles I called a General Assembly to meet at 
Jamestown. The holdinar of this assembly established the prece- 
dent for summoning legislative bodies in all the colonies. 

104, 105 Rice was a staple cror> in South Carolina in the Colonial ne- 
riod. The planters greatly desired slaves for work in the rice 
fields. 

117 Cotton also was raised but it did not become very profitable until 
the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. 



160 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION 

173 This picture may remind us that in Colonial times every household 
raised its own wool which the women spun, colored, wove, and 
made into garments by hand. Wealthy people imported fine 
cloth. 

185, 183, 173 These can not be called Colonial pictures but they will 
make us remember that the colonists raised their own animals 
for meat and milk. They made their own butter. Corn meal 
mush and milk was a highly valued article of food. Every fam- 
ily salted its meat for winter use. 

258 Throughout the Colonial period, sugar cane was an important 
product of the West Indies. Great quantities of molasses were 
brought to New England as the raw material for rum. When 
the English parliament laid a tax on molasses, the Americans 
smuggled. 

B. ORIGINAL AMERICANS 

(i) Eskimos 

343 The Eskimo race is probably not Indian in origin. With some ad- 
ditions of modern woven goods the dress of the Eskimo nowa- 
days is about the same as when the Northmen first came into 
contact with them. 

(2) Indians 

(a) American Indians 
American history has been much affected by the native American 
tribes. There were probably never more than a few hundred thousand 
Indians in the area covered by the United States. The Indians seem at 
first to have been friendly and usually it was the white man's treachery 
and cruelty which changed the Indians into bitter enemies. Most of 
the tribes have died out ; others have been exterminated or assimilated. 

98 A modern staging of the celebrated story. The saving of John 
Smith saved the Jamestown colony. 

265 The Iroquois lived in what is now New York. When Henry Hud- 
son was on the Hudson River he made friends with these 
fndians. At the same time Champlain was exploring Lake 
Champlain and he killed a few Iroquois thereby making them 
enemies of the French. These Indians always sided with the 
Dutch and English against the French and helped to prevent the 
French from gaining control of America. 

263 These people do not look much like the " savages " of Colonial 
history. The tent of bark or skin was the home known to most 
of the Indians in the northern part of America. 

204 This picture shows the outfit of brave, squaw, papoose and dog. 
Horses were brought to America by the European settlers and 
were adopted by the plains Indians. 

182 The powerful Sioux tribes ranged from Minnesota to Montana; 
down to 1876 from time to time they waged war against the 
whites. 



ORIGINAL AMERICANS 161 

(b) The Indian of Poetry 

Modern impressions of Indian life have been much affected by the 
novels of Cooper and the poems of Longfellow, both of which were 
carefully studied from the life of modern Indians. The Indians in their 
formal speeches are really poetic and love the similes and comparisons 
which the novelist and poet put in their mouths. 

158 " Nursed the Hiawatha." A pleasant picture of outdoor infancy. 

169 " From the wigwam he departed." The conical Indian wigwam 
made of skins or cloth, sometimes of bark, is a comfortable little 
house. The canoe is one of the important American inven- 
tions. 

168 " Brought forth food and set before them." Some Indians still 
wear the magnificent feather headdresses enjoyed by some of 
the tribes. 

(c) Indians Farther South 

In the southwestern United States and thence farther south, can be 
traced a more elaborate and advanced state of life. 

211 (13720) Coronado in 1540 found the ancestors of the present In- 
dians in pueblos such as are still occupied. 

205 Cliff palace in the Mesa Verda. Among the most interesting 
memorials of the Indians are the cliff dwellings, evidently built 
when the inhabitants were hard pressed by enemies in the open 
country. The more important groups of such dwellings are pre- 
served as national monuments. 

290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls. Probably most of these 
people are of Spanish descent, many of them mixed with native 
Indians. The customs of Spain and of the ancient inhabitants of 
Mexico are mingled in these people. 

292 Tortilla making, Salvador. These people are probably wholly or 
nearly pure Indian. They are of the same stock as the native 
Nicaraguans and Panamanians. 

331 Natives near wall of Incan palace, Cuzco. These Indians are di- 
rect descendants of the Peruvians who were conquered by 
Pizarro in 1528. They are standing under one of the most mag- 
nificent walls ever constructed by human hands. 

328 Indians on the Straits of Magellan. These people, though a long 
way from the United States, are connected with the early his- 
tory of America because their ancestors were found by Magel- 
lan in his famous first voyage around the world in 1525. 

C. EARLY HISTORY 

299, 298, 301 On his second voyage Columbus sailed along the south 
coast of Cuba. Also he discovered Jamaica in this same voy- 
age. 

278 In 1497. John Cabot anchored off Labrador or in some harbor 
of Newfoundland and claimed the land for England. 



162 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION 

256 In 1543, Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama somewhere a little 
south of where the canal now is, and saw the Pacific Ocean for 
the first time. In reporting this discovery, he recommended 
that a canal be dug connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 

280 Cortez landed in Mexico and named the place where he landed, 
Vera Cruz. 

282, 283 Cortez with his small army captured the city of Mexico. 

228, 209, 207, 241 Cabeza de Vaca, Narvaez, Coronado and other Span- 
iards wandered through the southwest and claimed it for Spain. 
Coronado described the "crooked back oxen" (232) which he 
found. 

108, 109, 110 Through Florida, Ponce de Leon sought the fountain of 
perpetual youth. 

263 Jacques Cartier, the first great French explorer, found his way 

through the Strait of Belle Isle and landed on Prince Ed- 
ward Island. He then returned to France. 

264, 265, 267 The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence till stopped 
by the Lachine Rapids. He passed the bluff where Quebec 
stands and gave the name Mount Royal to the high hill at whose 
base Montreal stands. He stopped to barter for furs at the 
Indian villages which occupied both these magnificent sites. 

262 As early as 1604 French people settled in Acadia, now Nova 
Scotia. 

264 Quebec was founded by Champlain. It was attacked by the Eng- 

lish several times and was finally captured by Wolf in the 
French and Indian War. 
61 Pittsburgh, Pa. This position was a strategic one in Colonial his- 
tory and fierce battles were waged between the French and Eng- 
lish for its possession. 
100 The first English settlers passed through Hampton Roads. 
98 If it had not been for the resourceful leadership of Captain John 

Smith, the colony at Jamestown could not have survived. 
113 The first homes were log cabins of the rudest sort. 
96 This is the type of home occupied by rich planters of a later day. 
112 Tobacco became the chief source of wealth, and was largely used 

instead of money. 
117 (see 572) Negro slaves were first brought to Jamestown in 1619. 
25, 39, 51 When Henry Hudson first entered this great bay and river, 
it presented a vastly different appearance, for it was all wild 
country. 
13 New England was rich in harbors and lumber so the New Eng- 
enders became fishermen and sailors. 
8 The Old State House has been the historic center of many stirrin? 
scenes. From its balcony the repeal of the Stamp Act was 
proclaimed and at the end of the Revolution peace with Eneland 
was proclaimed from the same place. Directly in front of it oc- 
curred the Boston massacre. 
7 Faneuil Hall was called the "cradle of Liberty" for in it before 
and during the Revolution were held important political meet- 



EARLY HISTORY 163 

ings. After the massacre at Boston citizens under Samuel 
Adams met in Faneuil Hall and demanded the removal of British 
troops. 
6 From the tower of Old North Church was hung the signal lantern 

which sent Paul Revere to rouse the minute men. 
10 Here the minute men first opposed the English soldiers. 

" By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 

Here once the embattled farmers stood 

And fired the shot heard round the world." — Emerson. 

9 When Washington was sent by Congress to take command of the 
Americans who were around Boston, he established headquarters 
in this house. 

80 Old Liberty Bell in Independence Hall, one of the most prized 
possessions of the nation. Independence Hall was erected 1729- 
34. In it the Continental Congress met, Washington was made 
commander-in-chief of the American Army in 1775 and the Dec- 
laration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. 

59 West Point was the American stronghold on the Hudson. Bene- 
dict Arnold made an attempt to give it into the hands of the 
English. 

37 In this house built by Jonathan Hasbrouck, General Wash- 
ington wrote this famous letter of rebuke to Colonel Lewis 
Nicola who on behalf of several army officers suggested that he 
assume the title and office of king. 



12. DEVELOPMENT OF OUR NATION 

By H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Litt.D. 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF 
CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. 

More and more we are coming to realize that the political 
life of a country is very largely controlled by its economic de- 
velopment and so wars are not considered the chief subject 
matter of history. Children are not now expected to learn 
long lists of battles and dates, nor to remember isolated politi- 
cal facts. Instead, they are led to find the causes and results 
of political life in economic conditions. These views are espe- 
cially rich in suggestive material which will help children to 
understand the causes and results of historical facts 

I. EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD 

A. POLITICAL EVENTS 
1784-1846 

96 After the Revolutionary War, Washington retired to his beloved 
home, Mt. Vernon, where he lived the life of a contented planter. 

29 On the 30th of April. 1789, Washington took the oath of office. 
He stood on the balcony of the old Federal Hall, whose site is 
now occupied by the New York Sub-Treasury building. New 
York was the temporary capital. 

90,93 In 1790 the place for the capital of the United States was 
chosen. The plan for the city was drawn by L'Enfant, a French 
architect. In 1790, instead of the streets and buildings shown in 
these views, there was nothing but virgin forest. 

91 John Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. 
At that time the city of Washington contained the White 
House and Capitol, both unfinished, and two or three big bare 
boarding houses. 

87 When Congress met for the first time in the capitol. the roof was 

larking and a huge canvas tent was spread to protect the law- 
makers. The first capitol was burned in 1814 when the British 
captured Washington. 

88 Nearly all the great lawmakers of our country have sat in this 

room. Here Daniel Webster, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, 
164 



SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 165 

John Quincy Adams have worked. Here were discussed the 
Alien and Sedition Laws, the Missouri Compromise, and here 
has been read every President's message except Washington's. 

89 The Supreme Court is the unique feature of the United States 
government. No other nation allows a court to declare a law 
null and void. The great Chief Justice John Marshall, by his 
decisions greatly built up the feeling of nationality in the 
United States. 

92 Cabinet meetings have had wonderful influence upon United 
States history. Differences of opinion concerning a United 
States Bank were held by Hamilton, the first Secretary of the 
Treasury, and Jefferson, the first Secretary of State. The peo- 
ple of the country also divided on this matter. In this way 
the great political parties of the United States originated. 

38 From 1784 to 1846, the United States was mostly an agricultural 
country with few large cities. 

71 This was the usual method of conveyance. 

B. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 
1789-1846 

During this period the United States was an agricultural country. 

Fields were small for they must be planted, cultivated and the harvest 

gathered by hand. There were in the beginning almost no factories. 

Practically all work was handwork. 

104,105,112 Tilling fields like these fostered slavery. 

117 At the beginning of this period little cotton was raised because the 
work of removing the seeds by hand was difficult. 

125 The invention of the cotton gin made the raising of cotton im- 
mensely profitable as a gin could clean a thousand pounds a day 
while a man could not clean more than one or two. Negro la- 
bor became very valuable to the planters, so the gin fastened 
slavery on the United States. 

124 After the invention of the gin, cotton became the chief product of 
the South. 

119 In 1791, America exported 189,000 lbs. of cotton. Nine years 
later in 1800, we exported nearly 20,000,000 lbs. The gin made 
the difference. 

109 Slaves were bought and sold. 

409 This is not an American picture, but during the early period Amer- 
ican women spun their yarn on just such wheels. They also 
wove their yarn into homespun cloth. There were no spinning 
or weaving mills in America. 
14 Parliament made laws forbidding the exportation of machinery or 
of patterns for machinery. In 1790 Samuel Slater, an English- 
man, reproduced Arkwright's spinning machinery from mem- 
ory. In 1813, Francis Lowell and Patrick Jackson made a 
weaving machine in the same way. From these beginnings 
arose the great textile industries of the United States such as 



166 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 

are shown in this view. Mills work best with free labor. 
These manufactories in 1816 led to the first protective tariff. 
Later the North and South differed over tariff as in 1828. In 
1832 South Carolina nullified a tariff law as the South did no 
manufacturing. 
71,106,27,217 One of the great difficulties of the age was transpor- 
tation. Wagons and sailboats were the only methods of carry- 
ing. Flatboats were found on the rivers, especially the Missis- 
sippi, but they could not make a return trip. 
61, 52, 26, 27, 39, 48 The invention of the steamboat in 1807 stimulated 
production by furnishing means of transportation to market. 
Steamboats on the Great Lakes, the Ohio and the Mississippi 
encouraged settlements along those waterways. The first steam- 
boats were very primitive affairs. 
48, 43 The Erie Canal enabled western farmers to send their produce 
to eastern markets at cheap rates. It made New York the 
largest city in the United States. Many other canals were built. 
25, 26 New York, Philadelphia and others began their wonderful 
growth. In 1800 New York had 60,000 inhabitants and Phila- 
delphia 70,000. In 1830 New York had 200,000 while Philadel- 
phia's population was 167,000. 
43, 129, 128 In 1828, began the building of railroads which brought 
every part of the country within reach of markets. The rail- 
roads were important factors in settling the west. 

198, 181 The invention of improved plows, harrows, planters, culti- 
vators, reapers and all sorts of farm machinery that could be 
drawn by horses enabled men to plant large fields with less 
labor. It vastly multiplied the working power of men on farms. 

357 Though found in England, this is the type of reaper and birder 
first invented in America. Such machinery made slave labor 
unnecessary, so you see the North and South developing along 
different lines. The North with its factories and machinery 
favored free workers, nationalism and protective tariff. The 
South with its agricultural products raised by slaves opposed 
the tariff and favored states rights. 

103 In the early days wood and charcoal were the only fuels used even 
in locomotives and steamboats. Steel was melted in charcoal 
furnaces. 

74, 75, 76, 77, 79 The substitution of coal for charcoal was a real eco- 
nomic revolution which affected all the industrial life of the 
country. It made the modern blast furnace and the quick mov- 
ing steamboat and locomotive possible. 

61, 139, 152 Cities began to grow in this new western land. 



MEXICAN WAR — CIVIL WAR 167 

II. WESTERN PERIOD 

A. POLITICAL EVENTS 

1846-1898 

The invention of farming machinery together with the steamboat 
and railroad led to the settlement of the West. Northerners and 
Southerners flocked to these fertile fields each trying to claim the land 
for freedom or slavery. That brought about the Missouri Compromise, 
1820, the doctrine of popular sovereignty, the Omnibus Bill of 1850, the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854, the Dred Scott Case 1857, and finally 
the Civil War. 

182, 204 This western country was the scene of many Indian wars 
before it became settled. In 1876 Gen. Custer and his entire 
force were massacred by Sioux Indians at the Little Bighorn 
River. 
232, 189 Game abounded everywhere. 
196 Trapping was profitable. 

214 The discovery of gold and silver immediately brought seekers for 
wealth. Little mining camps were established in mountain val- 
leys and the history of the Far West was begun. 
192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 200, 201, 202, etc. Men explored and penetrated to 
all parts of the country. For the first time its diversity and its 
extent were realized. 
221', 222, 223, 224, 225, 226 The United States gained possession of 

Oregon and her northern boundary was settled. 
212, 213 Utah was settled by Mormons. 

139, 167, 230, 121 Cities sprang up everywhere because there must be 
trading centers in mining, grazing or farming regions. 

i. Mexican War 

281, 284, 285 The Mexican peon or peasant has not changed much. 

126 The Alamo was used as a fort by Texans and Americans to de- 
fend themselves against the Mexicans in the war for the inde- 
pendence of Texas, in 1837. Every one of the defenders was 
killed. " Remember the Alamo " became the battle cry of the 
Mexican War. 

280 Vera Cruz, Mexico's one seaport was captured by General Scott. 

283 The victorious army pushed on toward the capital and stormed 
the Castle of Chapultepec. 

282 The Americans then captured the City of Mexico and dictated a 
peace. 

198 to 214, 228 to 242 All these views show lands that were ceded to 
the United States by Mexico at the end of the Mexican War. 

2. Civil War 

We have seen how economic conditions caused the North and South 
to draw apart. Slavery caused the South to lag behind the North in 
its industrial development. 



168 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 

104, 105, 112, 117, 124, 125, 119 Such labor could be done very cheaply 

by slaves. 
96 Washington's home is a type of the homes of the rich, slave hold- 
ing Southern planter. 

113 Lincoln's home was a type of the homes of the poor whites. The 

poor whites could not compete with slave labor. 
47, 38, 137 Types of small farms in the North with free labor. 
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67 Manufacturing in 
the North, the South had no manufacturing. This led to differ- 
ent ideas as to tariff, sovereignty, slavery, etc. 

101 John Brown's raid persuaded the South that they could not ex- 
pect justice from the North. 

119 The capture of New Orleans by the North decided the English not 
to recognize the Southern Confederacy. 

100 In Hampton Roads was fought the great naval battle between the 
Merrimac and the Monitor. These were the first ironclad war 
ships. 

114 On Lookout Mountain the battle was fought above the clouds. 
73 The Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the war. 

106 Gen. Sherman marched from Atlanta to Savannah, then turned 

north and fought his way into North Carolina. 
94 Great issues of paper money were put out during the Civil War. 

105, 108, 115, 117, 118, 119 These views show free negroes, made free 

by the 13th Amendment, made citizens by the 14th and given 
the vote by the 15th. 

B. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 
1846-1898 
i. Eastern 

The Eastern part of the country is the manufacturing center. During 
this period manufacturing developed as never before. Corporations 
were formed, these grew into trusts and the wealth of the nation began 
to collect in the hands of the few. On the other hand, laborers com- 
bined into unions, demands were made for shorter hours, higher pay, 
better working conditions. There was labor agitation everywhere and 
the strife between capital and labor was very bitter. The antitrust 
laws were passed, trusts were prosecuted, an income tax was im- 
posed, child labor forbidden. In 1886 there were 1,572 strikes. These 
conditions dominated the political life of the period. 
32 One of the great problems of these years was immigration. 
5 Skilled Italians. 

75, 77 Very much of our unskilled labor is done by foreigners. 
227 Chinese and Japanese laborers have come to our shores in con- 
siderable number but are now excluded. 
3, 4, 5 Stones of all kinds are being quarried. 

14, to 18, 22 to 24, 53 to 55 Thousands of workers find employment in 
textile mills. Here always rises the subject of protective tar- 



SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 169 

iff. The Walker, War, McKinley, Wilson and Dingley tariffs 
were passed to regulate tariffs. 

58, 59 In New Jersey and Ohio pottery works have become an im- 
portant industry asking protection. 

40 Garments made in factories are taking the place of homemade 
articles. Laws had to be made against sweatshops. 

62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 82 Work in steel mills is hard and dangerous. 
The mills are owned by vast trusts and the men are highly or- 
ganized. Steel mills grew up within reach of ore and coal. 
They employ vast numbers of foreigners. 
74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 129 The substitution of coal for water power makes 
most of the industries of the United States dependent upon the 
coal supply. A strike of coal miners is a national calamity. 

69, 70 Oil was discovered in western Pennsylvania in 1859 and has 
become one of the greatest sources of wealth in America. The 
first great trust was the Standard Oil Co. 

44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 85 Farming is also an important work, for farm- 
ers produce the food upon which all the people must subsist. 

25,26,27,28,29,30,52,61,139,167,230 In places like these is carried 
on the business of the United States. 

26, 27, 31, 43, 48, 52, 61 Perhaps the development in transportation, and 
exchange is the most wonderful of all. Such marvelous im- 
provements have been made. Air brakes, couplers, electric mo- 
tors and countless other things have revolutionized life and law. 
The electric street car makes the great city possible. Through 
interstate commerce laws the national government has found a 
way to regulate trusts. 

2. Southern 

Since the War the South has become marvelously prosperous. 
These views show the results of free labor. 

112, 105, 117, 124, 125 Cotton and tobacco still furnish the chief wealth. 

118 Peanuts are a profitable crop. 

122, 123 Vast oil fields have been found in Texas and Oklahoma. 

127 Texas also has great districts devoted to cattle raising. 

Ill Sponges are a source of great wealth. 

104, 105 Rice is a very valuable crop. 

86,97 Almost the whole oyster supply of the United States comes 
from the Chesapeake Bay region. 

106, 107 The pine forests furnish vast quantities of lumber, tar, tur- 
pentine and rosin. 

110 Alligator leather is valued. 

114, 116 Manufacturing is beginning as there are large deposits of both 
iron and coal. Some cotton mills are prospering. 

106, 119 Because the South carries on a great trade, selling raw ma- 
terial and buying its manufactured goods, it is still a low tariff 
country. 
85, 108 Fruit raising has become a source of vast wealth. 



170 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 

3. Middle Western 

This part of the country has every kind of industry. Here are found 
the great fields where food, both animal and vegetable is produced, and 
there are many great cities, centers of manufacture and commerce. 
As grain fields, ranches, mines and cities grew, transportation became 
of increasing importance, Granger Laws and the Interstate Commerce 
Act resulted. Corporations and trusts were established and there were 
great contests between capital and labor. 

147, 177 Millions of bushels of grain of many kinds are produced. As 
grain or flour it is shipped to all parts of the world. Specula- 
tors were able to buy up food and make prices high. 

173, 172, 183, 185, 186 Immense numbers of animals are raised in the 

great Middle West. 

140 These cattle are shipped to Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, and 
other cities where are located the greatest meat packing estab- 
lishments in the world. 

141, 142, 143, 144 All this preparing and packing is done under govern- 
ment inspection for these packing houses furnish a large part of 
the meat of the nation and of Europe. Laws regulating the 
preparation and purity of foods came as a result of such indus- 
tries. Meat trusts were formed. 

175 Apples and other fruits are produced. 

134, 135 Wonderful plate glass is made at Rossford, Ohio. 

133 Akron, Ohio, became the center of the manufacturing of rubber 
goods in the United States. 

155, 156, 157, 163, 164 Immense mines of copper and iron ore were dis- 
covered in Michigan and Minnesota. These were controlled by 
trusts. 

128, 154, 157, 164 These ores greatly increased lake traffic. 
63, 64, 65, 66,67, 78, 128 Wonderful labor saving machinery of all kinds 
was invented during this period. 

174, 154, 148 Bridges, canals, dikes made transportation safer and 

easier. 
139 Cities like Chicago with their millions of people engaged in all 
sorts of industries are centers of labor disputes. The strike of 
1894 in the Pullman Car Co. is an example. 

4. Western 

In 1846 the Rocky Mountains formed the western boundary of the 
United States. In 1898, the country extended to the Pacific Ocean. 
225 The discovery of gold caused the first rush to the Far West. 
214 Little mining camps were located in the mountain valleys. 
187 Soon other metals were found in great abundance. 
216, 233 Gold is not the only wealth of the region. The yearly wheat 

crop of California is greater in value than the annual output of 

gold. 
188, 190, 207 Mining is not the only source of wealth. Great herds of 

horses, cattle and sheep are raised and agriculture is developing. 



EXPANSION BY SEA 171 

121, 220, 230 Mining, cattle raising, fanning necessitate the growth of 
cities. Oklahoma, Seattle and San Francisco are fine examples 
of the western cities that grew up suddenly. 

C. EXPANSION BY SEA 
i. Alaska 

Alaska was purchased in 1867. 

243, 245 Gold discoveries. 

246 Methods of travel. 

244 Fisheries and forests are valuable. 

2. Cuba 
Cuba is a United States protectorate, not a possession. 

297, 298 Typical scenes in Cuba. 

296 " Remember the Maine " became the battle cry of the Spanish 
American War. 

3. Porto Rico 

257, 258 Porto Rico was taken by the United States in 1898 but not till 
1917 were Porto Ricans made United States citizens. 

4. Philippine Islands 

546, 547 The Battle of Manila came May 1, 1898. After the Spanish 
were defeated the natives revolted and had to be subdued. 

548,549,550,551 The islands are very rich in natural resources, but 
the common people are backward. The question of the inde- 
pendence of the islands presented a serious problem. 

552, 553 Hemp rope is a valuable product. 

5. Ha'vaii 

The Hawaiian Islands were admitted in 1898. Previously admission 
had been refused. 

260 Public school, Honolulu. This is what the United States does for 

all her people. 
259 Beside being an important coaling station, Hawaii is very rich in 
vegetable products. Hawaiian pineapples and bananas are the 
best in the world. 

261 The native Hawaiians are superior to the natives of other Pacific 

islands. They are believed to be of Caucasian origin. 

6. Guam 

554 The island of Guam also came to us from the Spanish American 
war. 



172 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 



III. MODERN PERIOD 
1898-1917 

The last twenty-five years of the history of the United States are 
described as years of marvelous social and economic development. 
People lived securely, they were prosperous and progressive. Men's 
minds turned naturally toward the problems of the improvement 
of internal conditions. Trusts were controlled in part ; labor was en- 
couraged ; new inventions have revolutionized industry. There has 
been a great growth in democracy marked by such issues as the initia- 
tive and referendum. 

Suddenly a change came. In the period from 1910 to 1917 the great- 
est political changes yet known have come to the United States. By 
the Spanish War, the nation was forced out of her isolation into inter- 
national diplomacy. Her acquisition of the Philippines brought her 
into relations with Japan. Still her development was largely economic 
and industrial. When the World War began, the United States tried 
to remain neutral. Gradually she was forced into the war and a new 
era in history has resulted. She will never be able to withdraw from 
world affairs into which she has entered. 



280 to 341 An organized attempt is being made to cultivate friendly 
relations with Spanish America so that the Monroe Doctrine 
may develop into a Pan-American Doctrine. 

247 to 256 On Nov. 18, 1901, a treaty was made with Great Britain 

abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and providing that the 
Isthmian canal should be under the sole jurisdiction of the 
United States. 

337, 249 Tn 1903. a canal treaty with Colombia was signed but the 
Congress of Colombia refused to ratify it. The rights of the 
old French Company were purchased by the United States. 

248 On Nov. 3, 1903, the state of Panama revolted and seceded from 

Colombia. And on the 18th of November the United States 
and Panama made a treaty by which the United States is to 
have sovereignty over the Canal Zone ten miles wide and to 
safeguard the independence of Panama. 

250, 251 Tn 1904, the United States began work on canal. 

250, 252 In 1906. Congress decided upon a lock canal. In 1907 it was 
in charge of army engineers. 

247,251,253 The main obstacles to the completion of the canal were 
the Chagres River and the landslides and the pestilential climate. 



MODERN PERIOD 173 

250 to 253 These views give an idea of the great engineering works 
done under the leadership of Col. Goethals of the United States 
regular army. Gatun Lake is an artificial lake which takes care 
of the sudden floods of the Chagres River and provides a part 
of the waterway. 

255 Major Gorgas of the medical department of the United States 
army has practically eradicated malaria and yellow fever from 
the Canal Zone. This proves that the tropics can be made 
healthful places where white men can live and do good work. 
It opens the whole tropical belt to development. 

254 On August 15, 1913, the Panama Canal was formally opened. It 
makes it much easier for the United States to protect both her 
coasts. Also it shortens trade routes by thousands of miles, 
saving time and coal. It will especially stimulate trading be- 
tween the eastern and western coasts of both North and South 
America and will help to promote Pan-American friendliness. 

243 to 246 In 1901 a dispute between England and the United States 
concerning the Alaska boundary line was settled by arbitration. 

520 In 1900, American troops allied with troops from Japan, Russia, 
Great Britain and France 18.000 strong, marched to Peking to 
rescue the legations besieged by Boxers. 

280, 289 Since 1910. Mexico has been in an unsettled state. Rebellion 
has followed rebellion. Presidents Diaz, De la Barra, Madero, 
Huerta, Carbajal and Carranza followed each other with bewil- 
dering rapidity. American lives and property were destroyed 
and many Americans demanded intervention. 

280 On April 21, 1913, the United States seized, and for some time held, 
Vera Cruz. 

282,283 In February, 1915, Villa captured Guadalajara. In March, his 
forces captured Mexico City. 
88,315,305,324.335.291 Ambassadors and ministers from United 
States, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, Guatemala and Uruguay 
met and recognized the Carranza Government. 

126 After promiscuous shooting across the border and an attack on 
Columbia by Villa's men, American troops under General 
Pershing were sent to the border. The American headquarters 
were at San Antonio. 

209 Through deserts of this kind Pershing's men followed Villa. 

466 On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife were assas- 
sinated at Serai evo, Bosnia, by a Servian student. 

460 to 467 On July 28, Austria declared war on Servia ; then Russia 
began to mobilize her troops and soon the whole of Europe was 
involved in war. 
25, 52 The United States as a neutral was engaged in carrying on 
trade and suffered from both sides. 

242 American submarines. Because her north coast was blockaded, 

Germany took to submarine warfare and persisted in sinking 

vessels without warning, a clear violation of international law. 

52 This view shows an ocean liner. On May 7, 1915, the ocean liner 



174 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 

Lusitania was attacked without warning and many Americans, 
women and children, lost their lives. 

384, 526, 282 The German Imperial Government plotted to involve the 
United States in war with Japan and Mexico. 
88,87 On April 6, 1917, the United States Congress, acting upon in- 
formation furnished by the President, declared war upon Ger- 
many. 
52 In this scene, we have the Vaterland, the largest ship in the world, 
and several companion ships owned by Germany and her allies, 
interned at the beginning of the war (1914) and taken over by 
our Government, April 6, 1917. 

394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 

83, 137, 147, 166, 184, 177,178,179,198, 199, etc. The United States felt the 
necessity of feeding the allies and the nation turned toward 
agriculture. No plot of land was too small for a war garden. 
94 Liberty Bonds, prepared in the Bureau of Printing and Engrav- 
ing, were issued. $2,000,000,000 was asked for, $3,035,226,850 
was subscribed. Immediately afterwards the Red Cross asked 
for $100,000,000 and received $114,000,000. 
64 to 67 Steel workers. A selective draft bill was passed, by which 
men who would least cripple preparatory work at home could be 
selected for the army ; for instance, steel workers are needed at 
home to make munitions. All men between 21 and 31 registered 
on June 5, 1917, and the draft took place July 20 following. 

146 Missions from France, other allied countries visited America to 
plan the largest cooperation. 

421,422 Paris ; 426 Chateau-Thierry. On June 13, 1917, Gen. Pershing 
and the first contingent of American troops reached France and 
joined the allied armies. At Chateau-Thierry the Americans 
won a great victory over the Germans. 

385 American troops of the Army of Occupation were sent to Coblenz. 

482 to 488 In the spring and summer of 1917, the Russian people over- 
threw the Romanoff Government. The entire country was dis- 
organized and chaotic, and later the Bolsheviki came into power. 
26 New York City; 52 Ocean liners; 106 Savannah; 119 New Or- 
leans. An embargo on food stuffs and war materials was de- 
clared in order to prevent such materials reaching the enemy. 
No ship could leave an American port without a special license. 

166 Potatoes ; 199, 219, 233 Wheat. A food control bill was passed 
August 11, 1917, and Hoover was made head of a commission 
with power to control prices and supplies. The price of wheat 
was regulated. 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1898-1917 
Eastern 

75, 76, 79 The anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania in 1902 was the 
first time a President had intervened in a dispute between capital 



EASTERN 175 

and labor. Today such a strike is no longer a private matter 
between men and employers but it is a matter belonging to all of 
us since it affects us all. 
229 Congress authorized the President to withdraw timber and mineral 
lands from sale. If this wise policy had been begun a generation 
before, the timber, water power and leases of mineral lands 
would today furnish enough revenue to run the government. 

69,70, Oil; 112 Tobacco; 14, 15 Cotton; 65, 66 Steel; 129 Coal; 140 
to 144 Meat. The Government is actively engaged controlling 
trusts and companies of all kinds that there may be more equal 
distribution of wealth. 

43,61,129 Acts were passed (1901, 1906, 1910) extending the power 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission and further controlling 
railroads. It is now generally conceded that regulation and con- 
trol of railroads are necessary and fully within the power of the 
Government. 

55, 54, 17, 18, 14, 15, 16 Modern inventions make finer and more beau- 
tiful cloths. 

57, 46, 45 Butter and milk are important articles of food. Local gov- 
ernments are interested in cost and cleanliness. 

34, 35 Modern methods facilitate all work. 

47 Market gardens are necessities and very profitable. 

83 Children are taught the value of the home garden. All sorts of 
vocational training are being taught. 

56 Even the price of eggs is of national importance. 
7, 25, 61, 139, 220, 230 Nowhere is the modern life so complex as in 
the city with its problems of reform. Municipal commissions 
and city managers are new devices for better city government. 
Men are devoting their whole lives to the solution of civic 
problems. 

43, 129, 88, 89 In Sept., 1916, Congress passed the Adamson Bill regu- 
lating time and wages of railroad men. This was done to pre- 
vent a railroad strike that would have brought ruin to the coun- 
try. Transportation is not a private matter since in our com- 
plicated system the lives of millions depend upon the transporta- 
tion of food. 

32 The immigrants are now carefully sifted by laws shutting out all 
but the most desirable. In 1917, a law was passed requiring a 
literary test. 

Middle West 

The same growth has taken place in the Middle West. To facilitate 

the movement of materials of trade, Reserve Banks were established, a 

Farmers' Credit Bill was passed. 

170, 171 The conservation of fuel is being accomplished by using natural 
means for generating power. 

151, 150, 152, 199 The automobile has revolutionized local transporta- 
tion and farm work. 

131, 132 Rubber manufactures are necessary to modern life. 



176 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 

156, 155 Minerals are produced on a scale never before known and 
they are reduced by modern methods. 

165, 185 Modern life demands cattle raised and cared for in the clean- 
est, most healthful way. 

136 Corn is now largely cut by machines. 

177 Threshing is carried on by steam engines. 

179, 178, 180 Even the horse has given way to a great extent to the 
tractor that never tires. All these increase the acreage that may 
be cultivated. 

191 to 197, 228, 229, 219, 222 In the Far West mineral and forest wealth 
are so great and private ownership so wasteful that the United 
States has turned its attention earnestly to conservation. Rec- 
lamation also has been carried on by the government. National 
parks have been set aside to preserve forests, scenery, fish, 
game, etc. 

215,216,217 The forests are melting away, so conservation came as a 
national policy. In May, 1908, was held at the White House a 
conference of State governors, congressmen and others. This 
resulted in a widespread interest in conservation. 

199 Dry farming methods for grain. New methods of farming are 
tried. 

199, 218, 233, 235, 236, 237 New machinery has made the cultivation of a 
vast acreage possible and scientific culture has produced bounti- 
ful results. 

210 In June, 1902, Congress passed an act by which the proceeds from 
the sale of public lands in sixteen States goes into a special 
irrigation fund. Local enterprise would find it difficult to con- 
struct such stupendous works as these dams by which thousands 
of acres of dry land have been made productive by irrigation. 

187, 203 Modern economical methods of ore reduction are in use in- 
creasing our metal production and at the same time conserving 
the supply. 

117 In 1916 and 1917 there was a noticeable movement of negro laborers 
from South to North. This presents an economic problem of 
importance. 

148 In East St. Louis, 111., 1917, there was a terrible fight between 
blacks and whites and many on both sides were killed. The 
race question is a difficult one in the United States. 
88 Congress. On Sept. 8, 1917, at 11 p.m., whiskey ceased to be 
manufactured and its importation was prohibited, as a war 
measure. In 1919 an amendment to the United States consti- 
tution which forbids the manufacture and sale of intoxicating 
liquor was ratified by the states. Also Congress proposed an 
amendment giving women the suffrage. 



13. AMERICA OF TODAY — OUR RE~ 
SOURCES — PREPAREDNESS 

By JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S. 

GEOGRAPHER, METEOROLOGIST, UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT, 
MT. VERNON, N. Y. 

America today is one of the most interesting countries in 
the world. It is well worth while to consider our resources, 
our development in many lines and how we compare with 
other nations of the world. America is the richest country in 
the world. Other nations have called us money mad; but all 
this wealth is strength. Today we are not looking at our re- 
sources so much with pride in our wealth as with patriotic 
joy in our strength. 

The first years of the twentieth century have witnessed a 
great centralization of power in our national government. On 
the other hand people were never before so widely interested 
in the government or so watchful of it. These two opposing 
tendencies will probably check each other. 



OUR WARS 

10, 80 The Revolution gave us political freedom and established us 
as an independent nation. Our Declaration of Independence 
has paved the way for civil liberty in all nations. 
71 The War of 1812 gave us commercial independence on the sea and 
throughout the world. 
206 to 214, 228 to 242 The Mexican War brought an important addition 
to our nation, giving us several additional states in the South- 
west. 
73, 114 The Civil War established economic independence and elim- 
inated human slavery. 
296, 546 to 554 The war with Spain made us a great world power. 
88, 92 On April 6, 1917, after vainly endeavoring to avoid the step, 
our congress declared that a state of war existed between us and 
Germany. 
87, 242, 426, 146, 394 The World War was undertaken to make 
neutrals safe forever and to make democracy possible through- 
out the world. It was a war for world freedom. 
177 



178 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA OF TODAY 

421-425 Treaty of peace was signed in Paris, June, 1919. It was 
made by representatives of all the nations of the world and 
provides for a league of nations. 

100, 254 A greatly enlarged navy has been provided for and is being 
built. In this connection it is well to remember that the iron- 
clad battleship — the foundation of modern navies — was in- 
vented in America and the first battle between ironclad battle- 
ships occurred in American waters. At the close of the Civil 
War we had the only armored navy in the world. 

242 The submarine was also an American invention, the first practical 
submarine boat being built by John Holland of Paterson, N. J. 

394 Aircraft — the "eyes of the army" — were invented and largely 
developed in America. 

RESOURCES 

The United States is the greatest agricultural country in the world. 
Extending over so wide a range of country with such varied climate and 
surface, its products are diversified. The Mississippi Valley alone 
contains nearly a million square miles almost all of which is suited 
to the uses of man. There is no other land of its size on the sur- 
face of the earth so admirably suited to the purpose of mankind. 
President Wilson's appeal to the farmers and gardeners of America 
resulted in an increase of one million bushels of foods being grown in 
1917. " War is no longer a collision between two armed forces ; war is 
a contest of economic resources. The man at the forge or the man 
with the hoe is as much a soldier as the man with the sword." 

83, 115, 161, 178, 180, 179 All living things require food, plants as well 
as animals. Plants take their food out of the ground, and the 
first principle of farming is learning to put back into the soil 
what the plant takes out of it. This is called " fertilizing the 
soil." Plant crops take from the soil nitrogen, lime, potash, 
and phosphoric acid and all these must be returned. In the 
large farms of the United States all this is done by machinery. 
Draining, ditching, plowing, fertilizing, harrowing and planting 
are done on a scale that was not dreamed of a century ago and 
which few countries attempt to duplicate even now. The 
foundation of this country's strength is its food supply. Presi- 
dent Wilson has said " upon the farmers of this country rests the 
fate of the war." 

Wheat 

177, 218, 233, 357, 488 In 1915 the wheat crop of the United States ex- 
ceeded 1,000,000,000 bushels while the whole world produced 
3,750,000,000 bushels. Very nearly 600,000,000 bushels are 
needed for home consumption. For the five years from 1910 to 
1915, of the total world's crop, the United States produced an 
average of 19% ; European Russia 17% ; India 9% ; France 8% ; 
Austria-Hungary 6% ; Canada 5%. 



RICE — OATS — MUTTON 179 

Oats 

147 There is not much commerce in oats, the crop is consumed as fod- 
der where it grows. In 1900 the United States raised 809,000,- 
000 bushels of oats ; in 1920, 1,444,362,000. 

Indian Corn 

184, 136, 137, 184. The American maize or Indian corn crop of the 
United States has reached 3,000,000,000 bushels. Not much is 
exported but the demand abroad is steadily increasing. In nor- 
mal times the value of corn in the grain rarely exceeds half a 
cent a pound. Converted into meal it is worth five or six 
times as much. Corn products include spiritous liquor, glucose, 
confectioner's sugar, oil and smokeless powder. The United 
States produces 71% of the world's crop; Austria-Hungary 6%; 
Mexico 5%; Argentina 4 1 / 2 %; Roumania 2 l / 2 %; Italy 2 x / 2 %. 

Rice 

104, 105 The rice crop of the United States is small and does not meet 
the demand therefor; indeed, if the world's crop were doubled, 
it would find consumers. Ordinarily, rice commands about the 
same price as wheat — pound for pound it is more nutritious. 
India raises 45% of the world's rice; China 22%; Japan 12%; 
and the United States less than 1%. 

Cattle 

127, 186, 185, 188, 140, 141 The cattle product of the United States 
formerly allowed a very large export to western Europe ; 
now, the export is comparatively light — about 50,000,000 pounds 
in 1916. The production is likewise decreasing. This is due 
in part to the decreased acreage of grazing land, but quite as 
much to speculative methods of handling the meat business. 
Twenty-five per cent, of the world's cattle are raised in India; 
13% in the United States; 8% in European Russia; 7% in Ar- 
gentina; 6% in Brazil; 5% in Germany; 3% in France; 3% in 
Great Britain. 

The Hog Industry 

172, 183, 143, 144 There are two reasons for the great commerce in 

pork ; it contains a greater amount of fat, one of the essentials 
of food, than any other merchantable meat ; it is more easily 
preserved than any other. As a result, the preserved meat finds 
as great a demand in tropical countries, where fresh meat spoils 
in a few hours, as in cold regions. The United States produces 
the most hogs. 

Mutton 

173, 145 Because of its tenderness and rich, meaty flavor, mutton is 

a favorite with the gourmet and epicure. In thickly peopled 
regions of the cold temperate zone, the sheep is grown for 
meat ; elsewhere, for its fleece. English mutton and Canada mut- 



180 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 

ton are largely a product of climate. In the same way, the 
merino sheep is a product of arid climate. 

Dairy Industry 

45, 46, 159. 165, 57 The milk supply of a large city must he de- 
livered daily, and, in most large cities, the production is super- 
vised under rigorous measures, in order to insure purity and 
cleanliness. Milk is consumed near by; but little is transported 
more than one hundred miles. That which is to be kept more 
than sixty hours is " condensed." Butter may be kept in cold 
storage for several months. American cheese is now a matter 
of export. About 300,000,000 pounds are produced of which as 
many as 100,000,000 pounds have been exported in a single year. 

Poultry Industry 

56 The yearly value of the poultry industry is about as great as that 
of the wheat product. Most of the commerce of the industry 
centers about the large cities. The demand for " squab " or 
young chickens is so great that the prices of eggs have ad- 
vanced materially. Eggs from China recently have become a 
steady import. 

Fisheries 

13, 86, 97, 226, 227 Cod off the Atlantic coast and salmon during the 
spring run in the rivers and estuaries of the Pacific coast form 
the most important catch. The cod is salted and suncured ; the 
salmon is cooked and canned. Both are articles of export. 
Any sort of small fry, especially herring, in a can with a French 
label is " sardine " and Russian caviar is the roe of American 
sturgeon. Much of the cod export has gone to the West Indies 
since the early days of the Massachusetts settlements. The 
oyster may be classed among the luxuries, but the demand there- 
for is growing with leaps and bounds. The oyster beds of the 
northeast coast of the United States, where the bivalve is culti- 
vated, are the largest in the world. The fishery products of the 
United States exceed those of any other country. In 1915 they 
were valued at almost $70,000,000; Japan was next with $63,- 
000,000; England and Russia each had $50,000,000; France and 
Canada each $33,000,000; Scotland $19,000,000; Ireland 1,000,- 
000 and Germany $10,000,000. 

The Sugar Industry 

34, 35, 258 Of the cane sugar, India produces 26%, Cuba, 23%, Java 
15% and the United States with her dependencies 12%. Of the 
beet sugar Germany makes 30%, Russia 21%, Austria 20%, 
France 9% and Belgium 3%. 

Iron and Steel 

The United States leads the world in the manufacture of iron and 
steel. Her annual production of iron ore is about 62,000,000 long tons. 



IRON AND STEEL — COPPER 181 

Just before the World War, the United States produced about 41% 
of the world's pig iron, Germany 24%, Great Britain 12%, France 7%, 
Russia 6%, Austria-Hungary 3%, Belgium 3%. 

61 Half a century ago Pittsburgh was an ideal location for iron mills 
for the ore and coal were almost within a stone's throw of each 
other and the three rivers offered transportation at a very low 
cost. Even though most of the iron ore now comes from the 
region of the Great Lakes, Pittsburgh's nearness to the coal 
and coke supply makes its location important — it is the greatest 
iron and steel center in the world. 

163, 164, 154, 128 With facilities for transportation such as are shown 
in these stereographs, a ton of iron ore can be mined and loaded 
at the Lake Superior mines and transported to the smeltery 
nearly a thousand miles away for less than four dollars. 

116 The Southern Appalachian ore fields are scarcely touched. This 
ore is especially adapted to the making of steel rails. Those 
made by the open-hearth process usually command a higher price 
than those made by the Bessemer process. 
62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 Pulling a lever starts the ponderous machinery 
that operates the various processes. The huge machines seem 
to have almost human intelligence. Brains take the place of 
brawn, and one man exerts a power that is rated by the thou- 
sands of horse power. 

103, 68 No fuel, or reducing agent, equals charcoal in the smelting of 
iron ore. The charcoal burns the oxygen out of the ore, leav- 
ing free, molten iron. Charcoal, however, is limited in quantity 
and is expensive; so the wits of man were called upon to make 
an artificial charcoal — the substance commonly called coke. 
Fat coal is dumped into " ovens " and heated to whiteness. 
Thereby, the liquid and gaseous chemical constituents are driven 
off. One of the by-products of the coke oven is coal tar from 
which nearly one thousand substances of commercial value — 
dyes, drugs and explosives — are made. Coke ovens are con- 
structed on the side of a hill, if possible, so that the coal may 
be dumped into the oven from a railway at the top and the coke 
shovelled into cars running on a track below the ovens. In 1913 
more than 46,000,000 tons of coke were used in the United 
States. 

Copper 

155, 156, 157, 187 In its importance to humanity, copper ranks next 
to iron. In 1913 the world's production of copper was 2,198,732, 
130 lbs. of which the United States produced 56%, Japan 7%, 
Chile, Peru and Bolivia together 7%, Spain and Portugal 6%, 
Mexico 5%, Canada 3}4% and Germany 2^%. The demand for 
copper is far greater than the supply. Most of the output is 
used as a conductor of electricity; a great deal is used in car- 
tridges. It is the chief ingredient in brass and bronze. 



182 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 

Zinc 

176 Zinc is not so abundant as copper but its ores are found in nearly 
every country. In 1913, the United States produced 346,676 
tons; Germany 312,075; Belgium 217,928; France and Spain 
78,289; Great Britain 65,197. Alloyed with copper it makes 
brass or bronze a metal combination indispensable in the con- 
struction of machinery. 

Gold and Silver 

245, 225, 203, 246, 287, 214 Gold and silver have been standards of ex- 
change ever since history began. Gold is generally found pure, 
silver, in combination. In 1912, the world's output of gold was 
valued at more than $466,000,000. Of this Africa supplied about 
45%, the United States 20%, Australia 5%, Mexico 5%, Russia 
5%, Canada 3% and India 3%. Of the world's production of 
$147,900,000 of silver, Mexico provided about 32%, the United 
States 20%, Canada 13%, Germany 6% and Peru 4%. 

Coal 

61, 74, 75, 76, 77, 129, 79 The coal fields of the United States are most 
extensive and also the most productive in the world and this 
results in the tremendous output of iron and steel and the vast 
manufactures, the most productive in the world. Of the world's 
annual production of 1,443,000,000 short tons, the United States 
produces 39^%, Great Britain 22%, Germany 20%, Austria- 
Hungary 4%, France 3% and Russia 2%. Pennsylvania pro- 
duces nearly all the anthracite of the world. 

Petroleum 

122, 69, 70 The ordinary substance known as petroleum or coal oil has 
a world-wide commerce. Tbe United States produces 65% of 
the world's supply ; Russia 16%, Mexico, 7%, Roumania 4%, 
Dutch East Indies 3%, Austria-Hungary 2%, India 2%. 

123 Gasoline and petrol are the most important factors in the distillation 
of crude oil. These are used for running engines. The best 
steam engine rarely utilizes more than one-fifth of the heat or 
power which the steam-making fuel contains. The internal com- 
bustion engine does twice as much work with less than half the 
fuel. 

Water Power 

49, 50, 197, 170, 171, 228 In the future the greatest available power in the 
world will come from falling water. In the early industrial his 
tory of our country water power was used for manufacture but 
the mill had to be built at the fall. Now the power of the falling 
water is changed into electricity which is carried to the factory. 
The power of Niagara Falls operates the street cars of Buffalo, 
Rochester, Syracuse, and Utica as well as of Hamilton, Toronto 
and other Canadian cities. The cheap and abundant power 



LUMBER — MARBLE — GRANITE 183 

of Niagara Falls makes possible certain products essential to 
modern industries. Chief among these is carborundum. It 
is the basis of most of our grinding machinery in our great 
automobile factories, munition plants and machine shops. Ni- 
agara Falls gives us our aluminum supply. It gives us also 
products which added to steel give it a hardness that makes it 
wonderfully resistant — so hard that when used on the point 
of a modern shell, it will pierce the armor plate without being 
deformed itself. The water that runs over the spillways at 
Keokuk, Iowa, and at Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona, 
is not wasted ; its power is turned into electricity. 

Lumber 

The proportion of lumber used for building as compared with stone 
cement and brick is decreasing. Nevertheless the present rate of cut- 
ting is three times the annual growth. The timber covered area in the 
United States is estimated at 500,000,000 acres or about one-fourth of 
the country. The Southern Pacific and Northern Pacific railroad com- 
panies together with several lumber companies own about four-fifths 
of this; the rest belongs to the nation or to states. The United States, 
Canada, Sweden, Norway, Russia and Austria export lumber. All the 
others import it. 

1,162,215 These pictures demonstrate each the solution of a prob- 
lem: namely, how to get the logs to the mill in the most inex- 
pensive way. In each case, it is solved for the particular lo- 
cality. 
216, 217 The lumber mills of Puget Sound and vicinity supply not 
only the lumber requirements of the Pacific coast but also a 
large demand in China and Japan. Both of these countries have 
been greatly denuded of forest trees, much to their detriment. 
Transcontinental railways depend largely upon the Puget Sound 
mills for their heavy timber, especially long pieces, such as are 
shown in stereograph 217. See also stereographs 224 and* 229. 
130 The maple furnishes not only sugar ; the lumber ranks among 
the most valuable cabinet woods in the country. 

Marble 

4, 5 Marble for architectural ornamental work is world-wide in use, 
and for carved work is probably more extensively used than any 
other stone. Fine-grained white marble free from blemishes 
commands very high prices. 

Granite 

3 Probably most of the granite now quarried is used in the con- 
struction of government and other large office buildings, being 
cut into ornamental blocks at the quarries. Thus prepared it is 
often shipped long distances. In the rough, it is no longer an 
article of commerce to any great extent, concrete being a cheaper 
and equally durable substitute. The quarries of the White 



184 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 

Mountain region furnish most of the granite in the eastern 
states. Red and dark gray granites are abundant in the west- 
ern Highlands. 

Structural Steel 

25, 26, 31, 174, 253 A building of brick or of stone reaches the limit 
of height with the sixth or seventh story. With a frame work 
of structural steel girders and beams, the height may be readily 
carried fifty stories, or 500 feet. The buildings in 25 and 26, 
the railway viaduct in 31, the bridge in 174, and about every- 
thing but water and shore line in 253 show the engineering possi- 
bilities with steel as a building material and the impossibilities of 
modern commerce without it. America excels all other nations 
in its manufacture and use of structural steel. 

Lime 

97 Shells of oysters and other mollusks are used also in surfacing 
roads and in making lime of a very superior quality. Most of 
the lime is made by burning limestone in a kiln. 

Concrete 

210, 252 " Portland " cement is now made artificially by burning lime- 
stone and clay in much the same manner as in lime-making. 
Mixed to a still mortar with water it hardens — becoming so 
hard indeed that it turns the edge of a steel drill. The cement, 
mixed with sand and broken rock is the " concrete " of engineer- 
ing science. Concrete has almost wholly superseded rock in the 
construction of viaducts, dams, and bridge approaches. The 
Panama Canal locks and the masonry of the various irrigation 
projects are built of concrete. In 1900, the United States made 
8,500,000 barrels of Portland cement; England between 7,000,- 
000 and 8,000,000 ; France 3,000,000 ; and Germany 30,000,000. 

« Glass 

134 A fine white sand is the first requisite in the manufacture of glass; 
other ingredients are lime and sulphate of soda. These are 
melted into a transparent fluid mass by means of gas blasts. In 
the United States most of the glass-making establishments are 
located in places where natural gas is abundant. 

The Cotton Industry 

1 17, 119, 124, 125, 207 The United States produces more than five billion 
pounds of cotton yearly. About one-third of the crop is made 
into cloth in the mills of the United States. Raw cotton is ex- 
ported to nearly every country in Europe and American cotton 
cloth is used by practically every people on the face of the earth. 
The United States raises about 62% of the cotton, India 18% 
Egypt 7%, and China 6%. England is the greatest manufacturer 
of cotton cloth. In 1914, England had in operation 56,900,000 



WOOL — TRANSPORTATION 185 

spindles, the countries on the continent had 43,200,000, while the 
United States had 31,840,000. 

The Wool Industry 

The scoured wool produced in the United States averages 136,500,000 
lbs. a year and yet there is practically none for export. In addition to 
this the United States imports 8% of the world's supply. France im- 
ports 25%, Great Britain 22% and Germany 20%. Australia is the 
greatest wool growing country, producing 30% of the wool, and Argen- 
tina is next, with 15%. 

Naval Stores 

107 The southern pine yields turpentine, pitch, and wood tar. 
Formerly in the days of sailing vessels, the two last named were 
used in calking the seams and joints of sailing vessels, and in 
preserving the fixed parts of the rigging. Therefore, they were 
called " naval stores." Nine-tenths of the world's supply came 
from the United States. Turpentine is the solvent for the oils 
used in mixing paint. 

The Tobacco Industry 

112 The United States is probably the foremost country in the value 
of its tobacco crop. One item of the industry is the manufac- 
ture of snuff. The world's supply of this material is made in 
the United States. The redeeming feature of the tobacco in- 
dustry is the revenue to the United States Treasury that comes 
from the various taxes imposed on it. 

Educating a Nation 

83, 260 Education is the foundation of a nation. Since each citizen 
of a democracy has a share in the government, every citizen 
should be educated. United States in 1915 had 7.7% of illiterate 
people, England had 1% and the German Empire only 1/50%. 

The Material Foundation 

19, 20 Print paper is an essential of public education. The circula- 
tion of some of the daily papers reaches about half a million a 
day ; and the strip of paper on which the daily issue of the 
New York Times is printed would reach from New York to 
Denver. One great magazine, founded by Benjamin Franklin, 
issues more than 2,000,000 copies weekly. The yearly edition of 
a popular textbook in geography would make a stack twice as 
high as Mount Everest. 

Transportation 

71, 186, 298, 138 Our forefathers employed the ox team, the saddle 
horse and the prairie " schooner " to transport themselves and 
their belongings to the west. 



186 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 

246 In Alaska the dog team still is the best means of transportation to 
be had. 

43, 129, 82, 61, 31 Today the continent is only five days wide instead 
of three months wide. The legitimate business of the railroad 
is to carry goods of all kinds from the producer to the con- 
sumer. In late years the problem of transportation is of na- 
tional importance and so more and more the United States is 
legislating for railroads in such ways as the Adamson Law of 
1916, the Interstate Commerce laws and so on. The United 
States in 1912 had 241,199 miles of railway all under private 
ownership while Germany had 37,995 miles, 34,623 owned by the 
state. Austria-Hungary owned 22,046 of its 27,570 miles ; Rus- 
sia in Europe owned 21,659 of its 37,008 miles; France owned 
5,510 miles in 30,685 and England's 23,350 miles were under pri- 
vate ownership. 

26,100,48,154 Because of Bessemer steel, twin screws and oil-driven 
triple expansion engines the Atlantic Ocean is now five days 
wide instead of five weeks. At the beginning of the world war 
the United States found her foreign commerce almost stopped 
because the English ships, the carriers of the world, were with- 
drawn from the trade. The United States realized that she 
must own her own merchant marine. It was through attacks 
upon her shipping that the United States was finally drawn into 
the war. 

52 On April 6, 1917, these and other interned German warships to the 
number of 91 with a total capacity about 629,000 tons were taken 
over by the United States. Three days later 14 Austrian in- 
terned ships were seized. This gave a total of 105 additional 
ships for carrying supplies and troops to our allies. To meet 
the drain of the German submarines on the world's shipping we 
have undertaken a tremendous building program for both steel 
and wooden ships. 

Some Trade Routes of the United States 

Easy routes over which the commodities of commerce can be carried 
to markets are quite as necessary as the market centers and posts them- 
selves. Some of the great trade routes, like the Panama Canal and the 
Suez Canal are world factors rather than national factors in commerce. 
Many of the trade routes and railway lines of the United States lie 
along old Indian trails — trails originally made by the bison. 
25,32,39,51,38,43,48 The route from the mouth of the Hudson to 
Albany, thence through central New York to Lake Erie at 
Buffalo is one of the world's great trade routes. From Buffalo 
to New York City the aggregate lift of freight is but little more 
than 400 feet. Because of this almost dead-level grade, the Erie 
Canal and the New York Central Railway practically fix the 
freight rates between the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic 
seaboard. 
154 The Great Lakes are situated at different levels. The surface of 



TRADE ROUTES 187 

Lake Superior is 601 feet above mean sea level ; that of Lakes 
Huron and Michigan 581 feet. The rapids in St. Mary's River 
were an obstacle to inter-lake traffic. The completion of the 
canal locks in the river opened a route over which more freight 
is carried than on any other canal in the world. Two canals, 
one on the Canadian, the other on the American Side, connect 
the lakes, the American Canal has two locks. Navigation of 
canals and locks is free. Ore from the Lake Superior iron and 
copper mines constitutes a large proportion of the freight. 
61, 119, 120 At the close of the last French and Indian War the ac- 
quisition of Fort Duquesne where Pittsburgh now stands, gave 
to the American colonies an open trade route to the mouth of the 
Mississippi River. Owing to the system of jetties which, by 
constricting the width causes the river to scour its channel to a 
greater depth, the river below New Orleans is now deep enough 
to be safe for ocean steamships. 

119,120,148,170,171,174 The Mississippi River drains wholly or in 
part twenty-eight states. The trunk and tributaries afford about 
fifteen thousand miles of navigation. Up to the time of the 
Civil War the Mississippi was the chief means of communica- 
tion in the Central United States, the traffic between Buffalo 
and Chicago excepted. After the Civil War, the tremendous 
growth of the railways took away the greater part of its traffic. 
Within the first decade of the 20th century there has been a con- 
siderable increase of river navigation. 

148 The amount of sediment brought down by the Missouri and its 
tributaries is more than the Mississippi can carry away. It is 
gradually building its bed higher each year. In order to off- 
set this, it has been the custom to make artificial banks or 
" levees " to keep the river between banks during high water. 
All this has tended to make the navigable channel narrower, 
thereby impairing the value of the river as a traffic route. The 
problems of the control of the river are in the hands of the 
Mississippi River Commission. 

248 to 256 The first proposition for a canal across the Isthmus of 
Panama was presented to the Spanish Government shortly after 
Balboa crossed the isthmus. In 1903 the state of Panama en- 
tered into a treaty with the United States, permitting the con- 
struction of the canal and granting sovereignty over a strip of 
land five miles on each side, officially named Canal Zone. The 
construction of the canal was regarded as a military rather than 
a commercial project. Its construction shortens the route from 
New York to San Francisco by 9,500 miles and to China and 
Japan by nearly 8,000 miles. The ports of Chile and Peru be- 
come near neighbors of New Orleans. 

114 The Tennessee River furnished a means of access to these rich 
lands. Great cities grew up along its course. 



14. GOVERNMENT 

By ARTHUR NORMAN HOLCOMBE, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

Every one of the views in the " 600 Set " illustrates some 
aspect of government. Every person shown in these views is 
the citizen or subject of some state. Every place is subject to 
the jurisdiction of some state. Everything is subject in some 
way to the operations of government. The student can profit- 
ably exercise his ingenuity in discovering in those views which 
seem most remote from government the evidences of govern- 
mental activity. Agriculture is often greatly aided by govern- 
mental assistance. This may be accomplished either directly 
by governmental irrigation works or agricultural experiment 
stations and colleges, or indirectly by bounties or protective 
tariffs. Similar relations o*ften obtain between government 
and industry. Moreover, factories and mills and the machin- 
ery of industry in general are subject to governmental regula- 
tions designed to protect the health of 'employees and may be 
inspected by governmental officials to make sure that they are 
safe and wholesome. Highways are built and kept in order 
by governments of some sort and all the instruments of com- 
merce are regulated or operated by some public authority. 
Certain of the views, however, suggest the existence and activ- 
ity of government much more directly than the others, and are 
selected for special consideration under this head. 

Compare the following views of different kinds. 38, 118, 
147, 180, 181, 184, 186, 198, 199 Country views. 6, 7, 30, 31, 
93, 139, 152, 167 Villages and cities. Notice the number of 
people and their activities in each picture. In villages there is 
greater need for community enterprise than in the country. 
In cities such needs are still greater. 

188 



LOCAL GOVERNMENT 189 

I. LOCAL GOVERNMENT 
a. Towns or Townships, and Counties 

10 Lexington, Mass. The common expresses the original character 
of town life. The New England town is the simplest form of 
self-governing community. 
7 Faneuil Hall and Quincy Market, Boston, Mass. Boston town 
meetings were formerly held in Faneuil Hall. A New England 
town meeting is purely democratic. In most other parts of the 
country, local government is representative. The market is 
comparatively unimportant as a communal enterprise. Compare 
with Quincy Market these markets in foreign cities ; 387, 393, 
395, 423, 555, 572. 

96 Washington's Home, Virginia; 104, 105, Rice fields, South Caro- 
lina; 112 Kentucky. In Virginia and other southern states 
people settled on large plantations and lived far apart, so 
county government with the courthouse as the center naturally 
developed. 

177 North Dakota; 178, 179 South Dakota; 181 Nebraska; 184 to 186 
Kansas; 198, 199 Colorado; 210 Arizona; 218 Washington; 233 
California. The Far West where people have large farms and 
live far from each other finds county government best suited 
to its needs. 



b. Incorporated Villages and Cities 

28 New York City; 167 Minneapolis; 121 Oklahoma; 139 Chicago. 
A city receives its charter from the state. As a city grows, its 
needs grow. Therefore the government in the cities is far 
more complex than in the towns and in the country. The nature 
of the community needs in the cities is more fully illustrated 
by the views listed under the head of Community Civics to 
which reference should be made at this point. 
27 Brooklyn Bridge. Most conspicuous among municipal under- 
takings are the public works and among these are bridges. 
348, 366, 392, 472, 560 With the Brooklyn Bridge should be compared 

some of the p^.ncipal bridges in foreign cities. 
309, 397, 423 These views show noteworthy public works in foreign 

cities. 
260 Hawaii ; 309 Brazil. Schools, theaters, etc., are often owned or 
aided by municipal, state or national governments. 
7, 8 Boston; 31 New York; 139 Chicago. Boston. Chicago and all 
cities and towns find that the continual use of streets necessi- 
tates their paving. 
6 Boston. City streets must be lighted and good water provided. 
7, Boston ; 30 New York. There must be traffic laws in cities to 
prevent blockading the streets and building regulations to insure 
safety and to prevent fires. 



190 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT 

31 Transportation, New York. City governments grant franchises 
to street car and other transportation companies. 

95 The Congressional Library is especially for members of Con 
gress. Each city needs a library. 

28 New York. The old City Hall was too small and a larger one 
had to be built. Most cities own their own city halls in which 
are the offices of the city officers and the city business is trans- 
acted. 

II. STATE GOVERNMENTS 

8 Tlie State House or Capitol as it is called, in most states, is the 
seat of the state government. There is scarcely a view of agri- 
culture, industry or commerce in the United States in which 
there is no suggestion of action by state government. The 
teacher might well encourage the pupils to study the views 
listed under the heads of Agriculture, Production and Manu- 
facturing, Transportation, and Commerce for the suggestions 
they contain of state governmental activity. The views which 
most directly illustrate state government are the following: — 

172, 173 Agricultural Experiment Station and State Agricultural Col- 
lege, Ames, Iowa. 

18 Woolen mill; 41 Shoe factory; 67 Steel mill, etc. Industrial views 
showing machinery equipped with safety devices. 

14, 16 Cotton factory; 40 Collar factory; 133 Rubber works. Work- 
rooms built in accordance with factory laws and subject to 
inspection by state officials. 

43, 48 New York. Means of transportation, owned or regulated by 
the state government. The steam railroads are subject to 
regulation by the national as well as by the state governments. 
Agriculture and industry of course are also subject to the 
action of national as well as state governments. Indeed the 
joint operation of state and national agencies is one of the 
striking features of our government. 
152 The Ford Motor Company factory and other great corporations 
receive their charters from the state. Also eacli automobile 
must carry a tag to show that it has a state license or permis- 
sion. 

44 Spraying of trees to destroy parasites and diseases has become 
so important that very many states send out men whose duty 
it is to show exactly how spraying or other agricultural work 
should be done. 

29 Wall Street, New York. Banks are examined by the state in 

order that ihe people's money may be secure. 
224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy Northwest. Very 
many states are now devoting a great deal of attention to for- 
estry. 
0. 8 Boston; 29 New York; 167 Minneapolis. A city receives its 



NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 191 

charter from the state. A state government controls local gov- 
ernment within it. 

III. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 
a. The American Federal System 

93 Washington. The study of the national government is introduced 
by the general view of the national capital. It is located in 
the District of Columbia or " federal district " which is in a 
special sense the property of the nation. 
282 City of Mexico ; 421 Paris ; 435 Madrid ; 450 Rome ; 475 Athens ; 
526 Tokyo. The appearance of Washington should be com- 
pared with that of other national capitals. This comparison 
should be made the occasion for a general explanation of the 
different types of government, monarchic, aristocratic, repub- 
lican, democratic, centralized and federal. 

96, 113 These early homes of our greatest two Presidents strikingly 
illustrate the democracy of American government. 

b. The Division of Powers 

90 The principal government buildings : The White House, Treas- 
ury Building, and Capitol, viewed from State, War and Navy 
Building. 

A closer view of the principal government buildings leads logically 
to a consideration of the three main branches of government, the legis- 
lative, executive and judicial. 

1. Legislative 

$7 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. The legislative or law making 
power of the United States belongs to Congress. The powers 
of Congress are enumerated in the Constitution and therefore 
they are limited to those mentioned. 

88 The Senate and House of Representatives in joint session in the 
Representative Chamber listening to an address by the Presi- 
dent. Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Repre- 
sentatives. A bill must be passed by both houses before it can 
become a law. The distribution of power between the Senate 
and House of Representatives is different from that between 
the upper and lower houses of foreign legislative bodies. 
340 Caracas; 352 London; 383 Berlin; 482 Petrograd ; 587 Mel- 
bourne. A comparison of the buildings occupied by the national 
legislative bodies of different countries may be made the oc- 
casion for a comparison of the powers and importance of the 
people's representatives in different countries. 

84, 94 Coining presses and the Bureau of Printing and Engraving 



192 GOVERNMENT 

were established by the authority of Congress, for Congress 
may coin money and emit bills of credit. Also it may punish 
counterfeiters. 

26, 52, 106 Congress regulates the foreign commerce. 

25 New York; 106 Savannah; 119 New Orleans. It is forbidden to 
make any law favoring the ports of one state more than the 
ports of another. 

48, 129, 154 It also regulates the interstate commerce. 
426 American armies fought here. Congress may organize and main- 
tain an army ; but no appropriation for army purposes shall be 
for longer than two years. 
100, 242, 254 American warships and submarines. Congress may build 

and maintain a navy. 
243 to 261, 546 to 554 Congress has complete control over the terri- 
tories and dependencies of the United States. 

90 Congress lias entire control of the city of Washington. 

283 Mexico ; 296 Wreck of the Maine. Congress has the sole right 
to declare war. It was Congress who declared war upon Mex- 
ico in 1845, on Spain in 1898, and in 1917 Congress declared 
war upon Germany. 

247 to 256 Panama. A treaty with a foreign country must be ratified 
by the Senate by a two-thirds vote. Thus the Senate ratified 
the treaties with Panama which gave control of the Canal Zone. 
89 Supreme Court; 92 Cabinet room; 25 Port of New York; 32 
Ellis Island. All appointments made by the President must be 
ratified by the Senate. Such appointments include judges of 
the Supreme Court, Cabinet members, collectors for ports, im- 
migration commissioner and many others. 

2. Judicial 
89 The Supreme Court room, The Capitol. 

The judicial branch of the national government is crowned by 
the Supreme Court, which meets in the room at the Capitol, 
once occupied by the Senate. The teacher should explain the 
special political powers of our Supreme Court and its peculiar 
importance in our system of government. 

3. Executive 

91 The Executive Mansion or White House. 

The executive branch of the national government is under 
the direction of a single supreme magistrate, the President, 
whose chief duty is to see that the laws are executed. 

283 Mexico; 315 Argentina; 367 Scotland; 384 Berlin; 432 Monaco; 
436 Spain; 476 Greece; 483 Russia. The White House should 
be compared with the executive mansions or palaces of other 
countries. This comparison may be utilized for the purpose of 
showing the difference in the powers and authority of the chief 
executives of different countries. 

146 French War commission; 100 American fleet; 247 to 256 Panama 



WORK OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 193 

Canal. The President is commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy. Panama Canal is an example of one kind of army work 
as it was planned and its building was supervised by army 
engineers. It is also guarded by army men. 

88 President Wilson reading message. From time to time the Presi- 
dent must present to Congress a message in which he tells 
the condition of the country and what legislation he thinks is 
needed. 

92 Cabinet room, executive annex to White House. The President's 
principal advisers are the heads of the ten great administrative 
departments, known collectively as the Cabinet. They meet 
with the President once or twice a week in the Cabinet room. 
The distribution of power between the President and his ad- 
visers is different from that between the chief executive and his 
constitutional advisers in many foreign countries. 
417 The Council room in the royal palace at Stockholm, Sweden, sug- 
gests an interesting contrast. 

c. The Work of the National Government 

Most of the work of the national government is apportioned among 
the ten departments and is carried on under the supervision of the 
members of the President's Cabinet. The departments are: (1) The 
Department of State, (2) The Treasury Department, (3) The War 
Department, (4) The Department of Justice, (5) The Postofhce De- 
partment, (6) The Navy Department, (7) The Department of the 
Interior, (8) The Department of Agriculture, (9) The Department of 
Commerce, and (10) The Department of Labor. 

1. The State Department 

296 When the battleship Maine was sunk in Havana Harbor, the 
American and Spanish governments dealt with each other 
through the State Department. The State Department is really 
our department of foreign affairs. 
13,278 Fishing — suggesting the work of the State Department in 
Newfoundland fisheries dispute. How does the U. S. claim 
fishing rights around Newfoundland? 
32 Ellis Island. Questions of immigration bring questions for the 
State Department. 

227 Especially the immigration of Chinese and Japanese has been 
difficult to handle. What was the difficulty? 

345 Sealing in Alaska has given difficulty to our State Department. 

50 Niagara. International bridges, such as the one at Niagara, are 

arranged for through the State Department. At Niagara Falls 

the amount of water that each nation may use for power is 

determined by international agreement. 

247 to 256 The State Department handles negotiations when new ter- 
ritory is acquired. 

338 La Guaira, Venezuela. When a European nation gets into diffi- 
culty with an American nation, our State Department guards 



194 GOVERNMENT 

American interests as determined by the Monroe Doctrine. 
What was the Venezuela affair? 

577, 578 American hunter in Africa. When American citizens go 
abroad, the State Department issues passports stating such 
citizenship. There has been much trouble with Russia over her 
refusing to recognize passports of American Hebrews. 

146 French War commissioners at Lincoln's tomb. The State De- 
partment attends to arrangements for entertaining representa- 
tives from other countries. 

352 London; 384 Berlin; 421 Paris; 450 Rome; 482 Petrograd. The 
State Department maintains ambassadors at the leading capitals 
and consular representatives in all important cities throughout 
the world. 

383 to 394 Germany. When a war is declared by Congress, the State 
Department makes the announcement and states the reason. 
52 Interned German steamships — presenting serious problems for 
State Department. 

2. The Treasury Department 

29 United States Sub-Treasury, Wall Street. The Treasury De- 
partment receives and pays out all the money of the United 
States. In order to do this, there is a treasury in Washington 
and sub-treasuries in various large cities. 

84 The Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. The Treasury Depart- 
ment has charge of coining money, according to rules made by 
Congress. 

94 The Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The Treasury Depart- 
ment has charge of the engraving of paper money, bonds, post 
age and revenue stamps and all such things issued by the 
government. 

90 The Secretary of the Treasury controls the construction and 
maintenance of public buildings. 

99 The Life Saving Service is under the Treasury Department. 
347 Customs House, Liverpool; 420 Goteborg, Sweden; 433 Custom 
House, Barcelona, Spain. These suggest operations of the 
Treasury Department of other governments. All the customs 
houses of the United States are under the care of the Treasury 
Department. 

3. The War Department 

266 Highlanders of Canada. In the United States the Secretary of 
War has control under the President of the military establish- 
ment. He buys uniforms, food, munitions and all sorts of sup- 
plies and keeps the army in readiness to meet that of any other 
nation. 
25 New York Harbor; 256 Entrance to Panama Canal; 100 Hampton 
Roads. The War Department fortifies and guards the ports of 



DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE 195 

the United States, the Panama Canal and all places of strategic 
importance. 
39 West Point. The War Department has charge of West Point 
where officers are trained for the United States army. 

250 to 256 Panama Canal. Fighting is not the only work of the 
United States Army. The Panama Canal was planned and its 
building was supervised by the army engineers under Major- 
General Goethals. 

255 Hospital at Ancon, Panama. Army surgeons and medical men 
under Major-General Gorgas exterminated yellow fever and 
bubonic plague in the Canal Zone and reduced malaria and 
typhoid by fifty per cent. 

210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The engineering work of the reclama- 
tion service of the United States is done by the army engineers. 

257, 258, 546 to 553 Porto Rico and the Philippines. The Secretary of 
War directs the Bureau of Insular Affairs which supervises the 
civil government of Porto Rico and the Philippines. 

394 Zeppelin. The War Department must keep up to date in every- 
thing that pertains to war. These machines used in the war 
for the first time, have proved very destructive in the European 
War. The United States has built many airplanes. 

266 Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal; 426 French troops; 585 
Australian troops and American marines. The American army 
joined the entente allies in fighting the Germans. 

4. The Department of Justice 

89 The Supreme Court room. Here the Attorney-General and other 
representatives of the Department of Justice argue their most 
important cases. 

5. The Post-office Department 

43 The mail cars on this train are under the supervision of the Post- 
master-general, who has charge of everything connected with 
the postal system of the United States. The " postal savings 
banks " are under his care. 

6. The Navy Department 

100 Battleships in Hampton Roads, Va. The Navy Department con- 
structs, mans, equips and operates all vessels of war. 

254 U. S. S. Missouri in Panama Canal. The Panama Canal doubles 
the defensive power of the United States navy as ships can now 
move quickly from one coast to the other. 

242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battleships. Like the army, the 
navy must have the newest, most effective ships and appliances 
known. Germany's " ruthless submarine warfare " was the 
cause of the entrance of the United States into the World War. 

585 Grand Review at Sydney, N. S. W., in honor of the visit of the 
American fleet. In 1908 the United States fleet made a trip 
around the world, stopping along the way for friendly visits. 



196 GOVERNMENT 

554 Guam and other small islands are governed by the naval officer 
who is sent there by the Secretary of the Navy. 

7. The Department of the Interior 

245 Public lands of Alaska. The Department of the Interior through 
the General Land Office, controls the nation's public land. 

182, 204 Indians who live in tribal relations are under the protection 
of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. By act of Congress, reserva- 
tions have been divided among the Indians living upon them, 
who then become taxpayers and citizens of the United States. 
No naturalization is necessary. 

191 to 197 Yellowstone Park; 201, 208 Grand Canyon, Col.; 219 Ranier 
National Park; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley. National parks 
and monuments are under the control of the National Park 
service. 
12, 14, 16, 18, 63 to 67, etc. Machinery protected by patents issued by the 
Patent Office of the Department of the Interior. 

172, 173 State Agricultural College assisted by funds administered 
through the Department of Education. 

210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The Secretary of the Interior has the 
direction of the reclamation service of the United States. This 
dam should be compared with the great dam at Assuan, Egypt, 
569. 
76 Coal mine; 208, 207 Canyon; 231 Earthquake fissure. The Geo- 
logical Survey is an important part of the work of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior. 
74 to 79 Coal mine, Pennsylvania. ; 155 Copper mine, Michigan. The 
Bureau of Mining under the Department of the Interior works 
for the improvement of methods of mining and for the safety 
of miners. 

The only important activity of the Department of the In- 
terior not represented by any view is that of the Pension Office. 

8. The Department of Agriculture 

93 Here we see the grounds of this Department. It supervises ex- 
periments in agriculture and issues bulletins giving helpful in- 
formation along these lines to the nation. The work is divided 
into many bureaus. 

138 Percheron horses; 159 Cattle; 172 Hogs; 173 Sheep, etc. The 
Bureau of Animal Industry encourages the raising of the best 
animals. 

140 to 144 Stockyards and packing houses are under the Bureau of 
Chemistry which enforces the Pure Food and Drugs Act. 

175, 198, 199, 108, 83 The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plants, 
their cultivation, diseases, parasites and introduces new and 
valuable plants. 

9. The Department of Commerce 

The work of this department is divided among the Bureaus of 
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Bureau of Lighthouses, the 



DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 197 

Steamboat Inspection Service, the Census Office, Coast and Geodetic 
Survey, Bureau of Fisheries, of Navigation and of Standards. 

25, 26, 27, 31, 39, 43, 48, 61, 79, 119, 139, 154, 157, 164, 174, 215. These will 

give some idea of the scope of work of the Bureau of Foreign 
and Domestic Commerce. 
13 Codfish, Massachusetts; 226, 227 Salmon fisheries. This is the 
material upon which the Bureau of Fisheries works. 

26, 164, 154 Every view of dock or harbor or ship will illustrate some 

phase of the Bureaus of Navigation and Steamboat Inspection. 
353 Greenwich is in England; still this regulator of the world's clocks 
suggests the work of the Bureau of Standards. 

10. The Department of Labor 
The Department of Labor was established in 1913. 

11 to 20, etc. These and innumerable other views will illustrate the 
work of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which collects and pub- 
lishes information on all subjects connected with labor. 

62 to 67 Steel workers. It especially studies the relation of capital, 

(29) Wall Street, to labor. 
152 Automobile employees. It investigates hours and wages. 

82 Locomotive workers; 128 Dock laborers; 132, 133 Rubber indus- 
try. It tries to discover means of advancing the interests of 
laboring men. 

74 to 79 Miners. The Department of Labor tries to adjust labor dis- 
putes such as the one which caused the coal miners' strike in 
1903. 

32 Ellis Island. It has charge of the Bureau of Immigration. 

83, 204, 187, 236, 249 Also it includes a Children's Bureau which is to 
work for the welfare of children, especially trying to abolish 
child labor. 

11. Other Activities 
95 The Congressional Library, for the benefit of Congress and the 

nation, is not under the direction of any cabinet officer. 
43,48,129,154,157 The Interstate Commerce Commission regulates 

commerce between the states. It may even fix rates. 
29 Wall Street, New York, is the seat of some of our greatest bank- 
ing houses. The Federal Reserve Board was created to unite 
banks and make money mce more easily from the great finan- 
cial centers to places where it is needed. 
282.283 Mexico City; 305 Rio de Janeiro; 315 Buenos Aires; 340 
Caracas. The Pan American Union has for its purpose the 
cultivation of friendliness and cooperation among all the coun- 
tries of both North and South America. 
Since the entrance of the United States into the World War, the 
Congress has passed several acts giving the national Executive powers 
unheard of before. 
The selective draft was used to obtain soldiers for the army. This 



198 GOVERNMENT 

takes men of a specified age, who arc able to be taken without crippling 
industries upon which the war will depend. 

The President declared an embargo upon a list of goods, in order 
to control their trade and prevent their reaching the enemy. 
• A Food Commission was provided Aug. 11, 1917, which shall con- 
trol the entire food supply of the nation. The use of grain for the 
manufacture of distilled liquors is forbidden and the making of beer 
and wine can be controlled. 

All these are innovations in American government. Whether they 
lead to permanent changes, is a matter of great public interest. 

d. Government of Territories 

243 to 246 Alaska is a territory under the control of Congress. It 
has wealth in minerals, forests, fish and fur. Territorial gov- 
ernment should be explained. 

260 Hawaii is a territory and its people are United States citizens. 

e. Government of Dependencies 

257,258 Porto Ricans are now citizens of the United States. They 

are largely self-governing. 
546 to 553 The Philippines are looking forward to independence. 

Now they have a share in their government. Their people are 

not United States citizens. They are rapidly advancing in 

civilization. 
554 Guam is governed by a naval officer. 

f. International Relations 

295 to 299 Cuba is a protectorate of the United States. She is com- 
pletely self-governing but may not enter into any treaty or 
agreement without the consent of the United States. 

280 to 341 Spanish America. The Monroe Doctrine declares that any 
attempt made by any trans-oceanic power to extend its influence 
in America will be considered an act unfriendly to the United 
States. 

338 La Guaira, Venezuela. This does not mean that the United States 
will prevent a nation's demanding and getting justice. 

352, 384, 421, 450, 463, 482 Communications with foreign countries are 
made by the State Department through ambassadors or minis- 
ters maintained in every capital and consuls in every important 
city of the world. 
13 Fish; 345 Seals. The United States has urged arbitration as 
the best method of settling difficulties. Disagreements concern- 
ing fisheries, sealing, boundaries, etc., arising between the 
United States and Great Britain have been settled by arbitration. 



AMERICAN IDEALS 199 



IV. AMERICAN IDEALS 

80 The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 

25 The Statue of Liberty, The Gateway to America, New York 
Harbor. The idea of liberty has a double meaning to Ameri- 
cans, — national independence and freedom for the people 
under fixed laws which they have had a hand in making. 



15. COMMUNITY CIVICS 

By ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN, A.M. 

. ASSOCIATE NATIONAL DIRECTOR OF THE JUNIOR RED CROSS. 
FORMERLY SPECIALIST IN CIVIC EDUCATION, U. S. 
BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

" A characteristic feature of community civics is that it fo- 
cuses attention upon the ' elements of community welfare ' 
rather than upon the machinery of government. The latter is 
discussed only in the light of a prior study of the ' elements of 
welfare ' and in relation to them." 

" The aim of community civics is to help the child to know 
his community — not merely a lot of facts about it, but the 
meaning of his community life, what it does for him, and how 
it does it, what the community has a right to expect from him, 
and how he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile cultivating 
in him the essential qualities and habits of good citizenship." 

" Community civics applies this point of view to the study 
of the national community as well as to the study of the local 
community." (" The Social Studies in Secondary Education," 
Bulletin, 1916, No. 28, p. 23, U. S. Bureau of Education.) 

(The following classification is based upon, and follows the 
organization of, Dunn's " The Community and the Citizen," 
copyrighted and published by D. C. Heath & Company.) 

i. The Beginning of a Community 
2. What is a Community? 
38 Hudson Valley. A group of neighboring farmers may be a com- 
munity. 

7 Boston ; 28 New York. Or the community may be a city. 

8 Old State House, Boston. Each state in our Union is a com- 

munity. 
87 to 95 National capital. Our nation is a community with its cen- 
ter at Washington. 
7 Quincy Market, Boston; 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany; 
395 Vegetable market. Brussels, Belgium. The country and city 
communities have certain interests in common. 

3. The Site of the Community 
25 to 31 New York City. Nature seems to have planned the Hudson 
River as the site of the greatest city on the Auntie coast. 
200 






WHAT PEOPLE ARE SEEKING 201 

217 Seattle, Washington; 386 Hamburg, Germany; 230 San Francisco, 
California. Cities spring up where there is a good harbor. 
61 Pittsburgh, Pa. The junction of two navigable rivers is a good 
situation. 

167 Minneapolis, Minn. Manufacturing towns often grow near the 
falls of a river. 

264 Quebec, Can.; 267 Montreal, Can. The head of an estuary is a 
fine location for a commercial city. 

139 Chicago. A rich region must have a center for trade. 

174 St. Louis, Mo. Where natural routes cross, will be found a city. 

119 New Orleans, La. The fertility of the soil attracts people. 

214 Mining camp, Nevada; 187 Butte, Mont. The presence of min- 
eral ores will cause towns and cities to develop. 

216, 217 Seattle, Wash. An abundance of forest products will cause 
the growth of a community. 
61 Pittsburgh, Pa. A river and its branches may divide a city into 

parts more or less distinct with different characteristics. 
31 New York City; 43 Busy path of commerce; 48 Mouth of Erie 
Canal. 

154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. If it were not for the wonderful devel- 
opment of transportation and communication it might have been 
very difficult for our great country to hold together. 



4. What People in Communities Are Seeking 

60 Atlantic City, N. J. Men desire life and health. 

29 Wall St., New York City; 139 Chicago shops; 351 London Bank. 

The desire for wealth is very strong. 
342 Peary expedition ; 575, 576 Victoria Fall, South Africa. Men 
want knowledge. It is this desire that ted Peary to the Arctic 
regions and Livingstone to the heart of Africa. 
90 Washington ; 95 Congressional Library ; 360 York and its cathe- 
dral ; 422 Champs Elysees, Paris, France. Men take pleasure 
in beautiful buildings and streets. 
6 Old North Church, Boston; 425 Notre Dame, Paris; 451 St. 
Peter's, Rome; 458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy; 503 Jumma Mosque, 
Delhi, India; 501 Pilgrims bathing in Ganges, India; 568 Temple 
of Karnak, Egypt. The religious desire is characteristic of man. 
In every community there are certain things men do to gratify it. 
60 Atlantic City, N. J.; 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany; 
466 Market place, Serajevo, Bosnia. Men desire companion- 
ship. 
260 Hawaii. The school trains children for citizenship. 
6 Old North Church. Boston; 29 Trinity Church, New York City; 
458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy. The church helps men to live har- 
moniously. 
8 Old State House, Boston; 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. Govern- 
ment establishes and enforces laws for our common good which 
all should willingly observe. 



202 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

5. The Family 

214 Mining camp, Nevada. In the far west there are mining towns 
and in the north, lumber camps composed almost entirely of 
men without families — the community is liable to be lawless. 

139 Chicago. There are thousands of unfortunate homeless children 
adrift in our great cities. 

519 A study of Chinese faces. It is largely in the drifting homeless 
population that the disorderly and criminal classes are found. 

113 Lincoln's birthplace. The early settler cut down trees from the 
forest and built a log house. 

488 Plowing with primitive plow, Russia. 

497 Threshing floor; 498 Grinding wheat, Palestine. "The grain 
was threshed by hand and ground into meal in a homemade 
stone mill." These primitive ways of working are no longer 
used in the United States. 
2 Moose, Maine; 189 Elk, Montana. For fresh meat they had to 
depend chiefly upon game from the forest. 

409 Spinning wheel, Norway ; 506 Weaving shawls on hand loom, 
Kashmir. A spinning wheel and hand loom were set up in 
the house. 

281 Home of peon, Mexico; 298 Farm home, Cuba; 362 Wordsworth's 
home, England; 373 A highland home, Scotland; 410, 411 
Homes of peasants, Norway. The family remains one of the 
most important means to provide for the wants of its citizens. 

6. The Home and the Community 
96 Washington's home, Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 181 Bryan's farm, Ne- 
braska. There is no kind of property that gives such satisfac- 
tion to the ownej - as does a home. 
61 Pittsburgh, Pa. In large cities where people are crowded to- 
gether, they may resort to low lands where it is unhealthful 
and in danger of floods. 
455 Tenement in Palermo, Italy. These tenement dwellings involve all 

sorts of evils. 
339 La Guaira, Venezuela ; 514 Canton, China. The insanitary con- 
ditions invite epidemics of disease. 
10 Common, Lexington, Mass.; 51 Palisades, N. J. Parks and play- 
grounds are being established. 

7. The Making of Americans 
32 Ellis Island, N. Y. Thousands are coming every year. 
162, 166 Minnesota. There arc sections of the Northwest where al- 
most the entire population is Scandinavian. 
135 Rossford, Ohio. Glass makers are often Belgians. 
227 Interior of canning factory, Astoria, Oregon ; 519 A study in 
Chinese faces. In 1882 Congress passed a law known as a 
Chinese Exclusion Act. 
ll7 Negroes, Louisiana; 175 Apple pickers, Missouri; 187 Butte, Mont. 



PEOPLE AND LAND 203 

All persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens. 
Children under twenty-one become citizens by the naturalization 
of their parents. A foreign woman becomes a citizen if she 
marries a United States citizen or if her husband becomes 
naturalized. 

8. How the Relations Between the People and the Land Are Made 

Permanent and Definite 

204 Ute Indian, Colorado. The hunting life of the Indian made a 
fixed dwelling place undesirable. 

178, 179, 180 Prairie lands. South Dakota and Nebraska. Our nation 
has come into possession of vast territories that would be useless 
if they were not occupied. 

180, 181, 184, 185 Farms in Nebraska and Kansas. Most of this 
land was sold and settled under the Homestead Act. 

136 Modern methods of corn harvesting, Indiana. After the Revolu- 
tionary War, settlers began to enter the Ohio Valley and claim 
land for farms. 

209, 210 Desert and irrigation dam, Arizona. It has constructed reser- 
voirs and a network of canals. 

229 Yosemite Valley, Cal. Another part of the public land consists of 

the national forests. 
213 Ogden, Utah ; 220 Seattle, Wash. Governments may compel prem- 
ises to be kept clean. 
6, 7, 8 Boston; 28, 29, 30 New York. Within certain limits cities 
do not allow wooden buildings. 

230 San Francisco: 31 New York City; 139 Chicago; 273 Winnipeg, 

Manitoba. Communities may grant the use of their highways to 
private corporations that render important public service, such as 
street railways, telephone, and telegraph companies and water 
and gas companies. 

9. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Desire for 

Health 

292 Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A.: 411 Milking the goats, Hard- 
anger Fjord, Norway. Life and health were almost wholly de- 
pendent upon the efforts and the arrangement of the family itself. 

10 Lexington Common, Mass. ; 33 Dining room and living room ; 37 
Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y. ; 57 Modern dairy, 
Plainsboro, N. J., 373 Highland home, Scotland. The most im- 
portant precaution against disease is cleanliness. 

10 Lexington, Mass.; 28 New York City; 51 Palisades, New Jersey; 
93, 95 Washington, D. C. ; 126 San Antonio, Texas. Of great 
importance in large cities is the system of parks. 

52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J. : 514 Canton, China. Any ship that en- 
ters our harbor may bring with it disease from the slums of 
Europe or Asia. 

61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 187 Butte, Mont. When a factory pollutes the 
Stream that runs by it. it threatens the health, not only of the 



204 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

immediate community, but also of other communities farther 
down the stream. 

141 to 144 Meat packing houses, Chicago, 111. Laws were passed pro- 
viding for the inspection of meats put up. 

295 to 299 Cuba ; 247 to 256 Panama ; 546 to 553 the Philippines. They 
have caused such dread diseases as smallpox and yellow fever to 
disappear almost completely from regions occupied by our army 
in Cuba, Panama, and the Philippines. 

io. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Protect His Life and 

Property 

6 Boston; 29 New York City. Now every large city is supplied with 
water from a reliable source. 
526 Tokyo, Japan. Seven-eighths of the fires that occur are the result 

of a lack of proper precautions in building. 
214 Mining camp, Nevada ; 89 Supreme Court, Washington, D. C. One 
of the most sacred rights of a citizen is the right to a fair trial. 
8 Boston. The police of a city patrol its streets at all times. 
6 Boston ; 461 Gratz, Austria ; 405 Copenhagen, Denmark ; 486 Kief, 
Russia. Well lighted streets protect life and property. 
273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Another important arrangement for the 
safety of property and life is a system of street lighting. 
43 Busy path of commerce in central New York ; 31 New York City. 
The thousands of people who travel on the cars each day are at 
the mercy of those who run the trains. 
74 to 79 Coal mines, Pennsylvania. In the year 1911, there were 2,719 
men killed and 31,334 injured in the coal mines of the Uniteu 
States. 
100 Hampton Roads, Va. ; 242 Submarines and battleships, San Diego 
Bay, Cal. 254 U. S. S. Missouri, Panama Canal ; 585 American 
fleet visiting Sydney, Australia. The navy is another means of 
national protection. 
25, 26 New York Harbor ; 128 Conneaut, Ohio ; 164 Ore docks, Two 
Harbors, Minn ; 242 San Diego Bay, Cal. The national gov- 
ernment has done a great deal for the protection of life and 
property by improving harbors. 
99 Life savers, Va. Every year the life savers perform deeds of 

heroism. 
119 New Orleans, La.; 148 East St. Louis, 111. The national govern- 
ment has constructed levees. 

ii. The Relation Between the Community and the Citizen in Busi- 
ness Life 

11, 12, 15 Factories in Mass.; 142, 143 Packing houses, Chicago; 151 
Detroit, Mich. With the introduction of machinery the division 
of tasks has been more complete. 

14, 15 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass.; 22, 23, 24 Silk mill, Manchester, 
Conn.; 132, 133 Rubber factory, Akron, Ohio; 134, 135 Glass 
factory, Rossford, Ohio. In well organized factories, each work- 






CITIZEN IN BUSINESS LIFE 205 

man devotes his entire time to producing one small part of an 
article. 
136 Indiana; 184 Kansas. In some parts of our country, corn is the 

chief product. 
117 Mississippi; 119 Louisiana; 124 Texas. In other places, cotton is 

the leading crop. 
85 Delaware; 108 Florida; 236, 237, 238 California. Some parts of 

the country are given over to fruit raising. 
127 Texas; 165 Minnesota; 185 Kansas; 188 Montana; 190 Idaho. In 
some parts of the West cattle or sheep raising takes the place of 
farming. 
74 to 79 Coal mining in Pennsylvania; 155 to 157 Copper mining in 
Michigan ; 176 Joplin, Mo. ; 187 Butte, Mont. ; 225 Oregon ; 214 
Nevada. In some parts of the country mining is the principal 
occupation. 
1 Maine; 162 The pineries, Minnesota; 215 to 217 Washington. In 

some places lumbering is the chief occupation. 
13 Cod, Gloucester, Mass. ; 226, 227 Salmon, Astoria, Ore. In other 

places the people are occupied with fishing. 
14, 15, 16 Lawrence, Mass. One region becomes famous for its cot- 
ton manufactures. 
22 to 24 So. Manchester, Conn.; 53 to 55 Paterson, N. J. Other 

regions become famous for their silk manufactures. 
47 Buffalo, N. Y.; 149 Celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich.; 177 North 
Dakota. The gardener who gives his whole time to raising 
vegetables receives in return bread from wheat raised in the 
Dakotas. 
1 Maine woods; 224 Oregon. The history of our country has been 
very largely a story of the clearing of forests. 
161 Draining land, Wisconsin ; 210 Phoenix, Ariz. Some of the land 

had to be reclaimed for agriculture. 
155 Copper mines, Calumet, Mich.; 163 Iron mine, Michigan; 116 Iron 

mines, Alabama. There were mines to be opened. 
26 New York Harbor; 52 Docks at Hoboken, N. J.; 129 Conneaut 
Harbor, Ohio. 119 New Orleans, La.; 106 Savannah, Ga. The 
history of the country has been greatly influenced by the growth 
of commerce. 
19, 20 Paper mill, Holyoke, Mass.; 62 to 68 Iron mills, Pittsburgh, 
Pa. 82 Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. The growth of 
manufacture has determined the growth of the nation. 
6, 7 Boston; 25 to 30 New York City; 139 Chicago; 167 Minne- 
apolis. 174 St. Louis, Mo. ; 220 Seattle, Wash. The growth of 
cities was remarkable. 
230 San Francisco, Cal.; # 212 Salt Lake City, Utah; 213 Ogden, Utah. 
United States history is the story of the building of railroads 
and steamboats and telegraphs and telephones. 



206 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

178, 179 South Dakota; 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 30 New 
York City. 139 Chicago; 29 Wall St., New York City; 87, 94 
Washington, D. C. The men and women who are today work- 
ing on the farms or in the mines, in factories and shops, in 
stores and offices, or in any other lines of business, are as truly 
doing their country a service as those who hold the offices of 
government. 

20 Paper factory, Holyoke, Mass. ; 40 Collar factory, Troy, N. Y. ; 
152 Ford factory, Detroit, Mich. The employer is responsible 
for the welfare of those who work for him. 

11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 82 Locomotive works, Philadel- 
phia, Pa.; 62 to 67 Iron mills, Pittsburgh, Pa. No man's busi- 
ness belongs to himself alone; it belongs to the community. 
132, 133 Rubber works, Akron, Ohio; 11 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 
14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. The community has a 
right to expect honest goods. It has the right to expect good 
workmanship. 

29 Wall St., New York City; 351 Bank of England, London, Eng- 
land. By far the greater part of the business dealings between 
individuals, between communities and between nations is car- 
ried on by a system of credit. 

12. How the Government Aids the Citizen by Controlling Business 

Relations 

8 Old State House, Boston; 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 14 
to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. When men wish to or- 
ganize as a corporation it is almost always the state that gives 
them authority. 
26 New York City; 52 Ocean liners, Hoboken, N. J.; 48 Erie Canal, 
Buffalo, N. Y. ; 106 Savannah, Ga. ; 43 Busy path of commerce, 
Central New York; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 164 Two Har- 
bors, Minn.; 170 Keokuk, Iowa; 217 Shipping lumber, Washing- 
ton. Congress was given power to regulate commerce with for- 
eign nations and among the several states and with the Indian 
tribes. 
84 Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. Congress was given power to coin money. 

386 Hamburg Germany; 422 Paris, France; 433 Barcelona, Spain, etc. 
Congress has established a consular system. 

527 to 529 Rice, Japan ; 530 Tea, Japan ; 310 Coffee, Brazil ; 317 Cattle, 
Argentina; 412 Paper, Norway; 419 Sugar, Sweden; 488 Wheat, 
Russia. The consuls investigate the products and manufactures 
of the countries to which they are sent. 

357 Harvesting wheat, England. Consuls try to create a market for 
United States products, in those countries whose resources are 
limited. 
52 Hoboken, N. J.; 347 Liverpool, England; 307 Rio de Janeiro, 
Brazil. 314 Buenos Aires, Argentina; 386 Hamburg, Germany. 
The consuls try to stimulate friendly business relations between 
our country and all the world. 



COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN 207 

43 Central New York; 48 Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y.; 61 Pittsburgh, 
Pa. 

154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. An Interstate Commerce Commission 
with authority to inquire into the management of common car- 
riers. 

122, 123 Oil region, Beaumont, Tex. In 1890, passed an anti-trust law. 

141 to 144 Meat packing, Chicago, 111. In 1906, a Food and Drugs 

Act. 
93 Washington, D. C. The Department of Agriculture, the Depart- 
ment of Commerce, the Department of Labor are means of na- 
tional cooperation. 



13. How the Community Aids the Citizen in Transportation and 
Communication 

71 Wagon, Crawford Co., Pa.. It cost $125 to haul a ton of goods 

from Philadelphia, Pa. to Pittsburgh, Pa. by wagon. 
112 Tobacco field; 124 Cotton gin, Texas; 147 Loading oats, Illinois. 
149 Celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich. ; 162 Minnesota pineries. Ninety- 
five per cent of every load by train, steamship or express must 
be carted over a highway. 
195 Rocky Mountain Divide, Wyoming; 221 Mt. Hood, Oregon. 
Where there are hills the cost of hauling is twice as much as in 
level country for only half as much can be hauled in each load. 
48 Mouth Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 119 Levee, 
New Orleans, La.; 157 Houghton, Mich. The invention of the 
steamboat gave a great impetus to water transportation. 
43 Railroad train, Central New York; 129 Train load of coal, Con- 
neaut, Ohio. The rapid use of railways checked the use of 
rivers. 
128 Conneaut, Ohio; 157 Loading ore on a boat, Houghton, Mich.; 164 
Two Harbors, Minn. The commerce of the Great Lakes has 
steadily increased, and is today of enormous proportions. 
48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. The Erie Canal is still an 

important highway. 
154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. One of the largest of these is the canal 

at Sault Ste. Marie. 
248 to 256 Panama Canal. The greatest canal ever undertaken is the 

Panama canal. 
277 Western terminus of Canadian Pacific, Vancouver, B. C. Steam 
railways revolutionized transportation. 
43 Electric railroad, Central New York. Another important step is 
the recent growth of electric interurban railways. 
7 Boston; 31 New York. The question of transportation in cities 

is an important one. 
6, 7 Boston ; 29 New York City ; 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, 
Paris, France. 



208 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

90 Washington, D. C. ; 152 Detroit, Mich. First in importance is the 
street itself. Streets are for the use of the people. 

339 Narrow streets of La Guaira, Venezuela. There are ordinances 
to prevent storekeepers and others from blocking the sidewalks 
with boxes or otherwise. 
31 Many forms of transportation, New York City. Life in cities has 
been revolutionized by the development of rapid transportation 
by electric trolley cars, elevated railways and systems of sub- 
ways. 

273 Winnipeg, Manitoba; 28 World Building, New York City. There 
must be exchange of ideas. We have a postal system, the tele- 
graph and telephone and the newspaper. 

14. Waste and Saving 

216 Port Blakely Mills, Puget Sound, Wash. In a well managed saw- 
mill the waste is made into tool handles, chair rounds and other 
small articles. 

122, 123 Oil region, Texas. From what was formerly wasted in rfe- 
fining petroleum are now produced paraffin, vaseline, dyestuffs, 
etc. 

210 Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Ariz. The reclamation by irrigation of 
vast areas of waste land. 
93 Washington, D. C. In the Department of Agriculture there is a 
bureau of soils. 

172, 173 Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. The national government 
cooperates with state governments many of whom have agri- 
cultural schools. 

224 Great tree, Oregon. Our forest resources have been sadly wasted. 

222 Crater Lake, Ore.; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley, Cal. The national 
government has set aside a large number of national forests. 
49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. Niagara Falls and other sources of 
water power have been harnessed to generate electrical power. 

15. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Desire 
for Knowledge 

260 Public school, Hawaii. Education is not only a privilege; it is a 

duty. 
95 Congressional library, Washington, D. C. There are thousands of 

libraries all over the country. 
172, 173 Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. A number of states provide 

state universities. 

16. Civic Beauty 

64 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 163 Burt Mine, Minnesota. Hills are cut away 
for the resources they contain. 

61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 216 Port Blakely Mills, Puget Sound, Wash. 
Streams are lined with ugly and noisy factories and clogged 
with refuse. 

63 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 68 Coke ovens, Connellsville, Pa. The sky is ob- 
scured with smoke. 



CIVIC BEAUTY 209 

191 to 197 Yellowstone Valley, Wyoming; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley, 
California. Much natural scenery may be preserved by the crea- 
tion of national and state parks as in the case of the Yellow- 
stone and the Yosemite. 
49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. Niagara Falls is in danger of being 
transformed from one of the greatest wonders of nature into a 
mere sluice for the turning of mill wheels. 
37 Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y. ; 91 the White 
House, Washington, D. C. The place to begin beautifying a 
community is at home. 
9 Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. ; 10 Lexington, Mass. The 
first essential to beauty is neatness and orderliness. 
373 Highland home, Scotland. There is almost always a spot for 

vines and flowers to grow if only in window boxes. 
354 Shakespeare's home, England ; 355 Anne Hathaway's home, Eng- 
land ; 360 York, England ; 422 Paris, France. Whole squares 
and whole streets present an unbroken view of beauty. 
83 School gardens, Philadelphia, Pa. School children transformed 
vacant lots, barren, disorderly places into beautiful flower and 
vegetable gardens. 
305 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The street is public 
property. 
28, 29, 31 New York City; 337 Street in Barranquilla, Colombia; 351 
Bank of England, London, England. In cities good pavements 
are perhaps the first essential to beautiful streets. 
90, 93 Washington, D. C. ; 339 La Guaira, Venezuela ; 341 Caracas, 
Venezuela. In the matter of clean streets, prevention is better 
than cure. 
90, 93 Washington, D. C. ; 222 Crater Lake, Ore. Among the most 

beautiful objects in nature are trees. 
71 Crawford Co., Pa. What is more beautiful than a country road 

lined with trees? 
220 Seattle, Wash. A great deal of monotony is produced in our 

streets. 
273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Telegraph and telephone poles are un- 
sightly. 
93, 95 Washington, D. C; 126 San Antonio, Tex.; 312 Montevideo, 
Uruguay. 316 Buenos Aires, Argentina; 324 Santiago, Chile; 
329 Monte Misti, Peru. 340 Caracas, Venezuela. All cities 
have their systems of parks and boulevards. 
28 New York City. Small parks with grass and trees, flowers and 
fountains which may bring a little pleasure into the lives of those 
who seldom enjoy the fresh air of the country. 
63 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Smoke, like th< 
network of wires, has been assumed to be a necessity. 



210 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

7, 8 Boston, Mass.; 31 New York City. As wires are disappearing, 
so is smoke. 
90, 93 Washington, D. C. Cities themselves are more thoughtfully 
planned. 
212 Salt Lake City, Utah; 220 Seattle, Wash. One of the first steps 
toward making good citizens is to give them pleasant sur- 
roundings. 

17. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Religious 

Desire 

295 Havana, Cuba ; 324 Santiago, Chile ; 335 Bolivia ; 109 St. Au- 
gustine, Fla. The Spaniards made their conquests in the name 
of religion. 
6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. The Pilgrims came to find free- 
dom of worship. 
87 Capitol, Washington, D. C. Congress can not make any law re- 
specting the establishment of religion. 

6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. ; 29 Trinity, New York City ; 36 

Church at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. ; 109 Old Spanish Church, St. 
Augustine, Fla. ; 212 Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah. 
Our government allows the greatest personal liberty in religion. 

18. How the Cities of a Community Govern Themselves 

87, 95 Washington, D. C. Government is the servant of the people, 
not their master. 

96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 181 Farm home, Lin- 
coln, Neb. The state prescribes the rules for family relations. 

11 Factory, Massachusetts; 159 Barns and cattle, Wisconsin; 160 
Corn crop, Wisconsin. 188 Ranch, Montana. The state pro- 
tects our property, etc. 

28 City buildings, New York City. Local governments are merely 
branches of state governments. Their duties are chiefly ad- 
ministrative. 

7 Town Hall, Boston; 28 City building, New York City. Matters 

of local interest are in the hands of local government. 
43 Transportation, Central New York. Matters of more general 

interest are regulated by the state. 
87, 88 Washington, D. C. Laws are made by the legislative branch. 
91 White House, Washington, D. C. The enforcement of these laws 

is intrusted to the executive branch. 
89 Supreme Court, Washington, D. C. If any question arises as to 

the meaning of the laws, it is finally settled by the judiciary. 
28 City Building, New York City ; 88 Congress, Washington, D. C. 

The right to vote for representatives in the government is a 

privilege prescribed by state constitutions. 
243 to 246 Alaska. Women in Alaska have the right to vote. 

8 Boston; 29 New York City; 109 St. Augustine, Fla. Difference of 



SELF-GOVERNMENT 211 

opinion makes political parties. The party may be a local party, 
concerned with such a question as paving a street. 
117 Negroes, Mississippi. Parties may be national, arising out of 
some great question, as the extension of slavery. 

88 Congress, Washington, D. C. At first the representatives of each 
party in Congress used to nominate candidates for President 
and Vice-President. 
110 Negro, Florida; 117 Negroes, Mississippi; 124 Cotton gin, Texas; 
204 Ute Indian, Colorado ; 227 Canning factory, Astoria, Ore. 
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
abridged on account of race, color or previous condition of 
servitude. 
9, 10 Colonial houses, Massachusetts. In colonial times, the right 
to vote was denied to those who did not own a certain amount 
of property. 
6 Old North Church, Boston ; 29 Trinity Church, New York City. 
In colonial times, it was common to deny the vote to all who 
were not members of the church. 

25-50 New York; 190 Idaho; 198 Colorado; 218 Washington; 233 
California; 184 Kansas; 210 Arizona. These and other states 
have woman's suffrage. They all are progressive and pros- 
perous. A suffrage amendment is before the nation and with- 
out doubt will be ratified. 

19. Changing Methods of Self-Government 

87 to 90 Washington, D. C. Few of the people actually take direct 
part in the government — not many citizens can hold office. 

96 Mt. Vernon, Va. The men who will best look after community 
business are often men who have large interests of their own. 

88 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. The choice of a good President 
depends on the choice of a good man. 

25, 26, 30 New York City. In large communities, it is difficult to 
know the various candidates and their merits. 

88 President Wilson, Washington, D. C. ; 146 Lincoln's tomb, Spring- 
field, 111. To secure united action, there must be organization 
under leaders. 

87, 88 Washington, D. C. The defeated parties should have rep- 
resentation and their views should be considered. 
220 Seattle, Wash. The " recall " is used especially in the west to 
remove officials who are not properly fulfilling the obligations 
of office. 

75, 76 Miners, Pennsylvania; 107 Savannah, Ga. ; 115 Columbia, 
Tenn. ; 147 Farmers, Illinois; 152 Factory men, Detroit, Mich.; 
161 Farmers, Wisconsin; 167 Minneapolis, Minn.; 175 Farmers, 
Missouri. " The initiative " and " referendum " are methods by 
which people themselves take direct action in law making. 
These are types of people. 
117 Negroes, Miss.; 227 Canning factory, Astoria, Ore. The chief 
argument against the " initiative " and " referendum " is that the 



212 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

people as a whole are not sufficiently informed to vote upon im- 
portant laws. 
89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. Party feeling should 
not be allowed to enter into some appointments, such as judges. 
253 London; 383 Berlin; 421 Paris; 462 Vienna, Austria. In some 
foreign countries, young women go into training for public 
service. 
11 Factory hands, Massachusetts and 152 Detroit, Mich.; 103 Farm- 
ers, South Carolina ; 124 Farmers, Texas ; 144 Packers, Chi- 
cago. In our country, the feeling seems to prevail that every 
citizen is competent to hold an office if he can get it and that 
all, men and women, should have the right to vote. 

20. The Government of Rural Communities 

6 Old North Church, Boston. In early New England, a town was a 

little village with its surrounding farms governed by all the free- 
men who belonged to the church. 

7 Town House, Boston. The town meeting, held in the town house, 

chose the officers and levied the tax. 
96 Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 104, 105 Rice fields, South Carolina; 117 Cot- 
ton plantation, Mississippi. The South was rich farming land, 
so the colonists scattered to large plantations and county gov- 
ernment developed. 
38 Hudson Valley, N. Y. ; 47 Farm, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 61 Pittsburgh, 
Pa.; 71 Crawford Co., Pa.; 69 Oil fields, Pennsylvania. New 
York and Pennsylvania, lying between New England and Vir- 
ginia, developed both township and county governments. 

165, 166 Country, Minnesota; 178, 179 Country, South Dakota; 190 
Sheep range, Idaho; 188 Ranch, Montana; 180. 181 Country, 
Nebraska. The country system is more practicable in the West, 
for the population is widely scattered. 

25 to 31 New York City; 139 Chicago. Some counties are occupied 
wholly by large cities. 

237 to 240 Los Angeles County, Cal. The present law in Los Angeles 
County provides for the election of not more than three officers 
in one year. 

228 to 242 California. By state law in California each county has the 
right to adopt its own charter. 

21. The Government of Cities 
6 to 8 Boston; 25 to 31 New York City; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 121 
Oklahoma City, Okla. ; 139 Chicago : 167 Minneapolis, Minn.: 
212 Salt Lake City. Utah. 213 Ogden, Utah; 220 Seattle. 
Wash.: 230 San Francisco. Cal. The growth of cities in the 
United States has been very rapid and they have brought many 
serious problems. 
61 Pittsburgh, Pa.: 139 Chicago. American cities are constantly be- 
ing made over. 
128, 131 to 135 Ohio ; 228 to 242 California. Some states as Ohio and 
California allow their cities to draft their own charters. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 213 

28 City Building, New York City. City government is most com- 

monly vested in a council and mayor. 

22. The Government of the Nation 
87, 88 Washington, D. C. Congress shall consist of two houses, a 

Senate and a House of Representatives. 
88 President Wilson, Washington, D. C. The President is the chief 
executive officer. He may convene either or both houses ; he 
must give to them his message. 
92 Cabinet room, Washington, D. C. The President with the con- 
sent of the Senate appoints the Cabinet. 
384 Berlin ; 435 Madrid, Spain ; 526 Tokyo, Japan. The Secretary of 
State maintains relations between the United States and other 
countries. Through him government notes are sent and treaties 
such as the Panama treaty are made. 
448 Switzerland; 452 Rome; 578 Hunter, South Africa. Through him 

the rights of Americans in foreign countries are looked after. 
282 City of Mexico ; 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. If any of the inde- 
pendent countries of North or South America get into trouble 
with any other nation, our State Department, acting under the 
Monroe Doctrine, is an interested party. 

29 Sub Treasury, New York City; 84 Mint, Philadelphia; 94 Public 

Buildings, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of the Treasury is 
the financial manager of the national government. 

29 Sub-Treasury, New York City; 87 Capitol, Washington; 90 Pub- 
lic Buildings, Washington, D. C. ; 95 Congressional Library, 
Washington, D. C. He controls the construction and mainte- 
nance of public buildings. 

99 Life saving service, Va. The Secretary of the Treasury has charge 
of the life-saving service. 

39 West Point, N. Y.; 90 Navy Building, Washington, D. C. The 
Secretary of War has control, under the President, of the mili- 
tary establishment of the nation. 

25 New York Harbor; 120 Mississippi mouth; 148 Dikes, East St. 

Louis, 111. He administers river and harbor improvements. 
257, 258 Porto Rico ; 546 to 553 Philippines. He directs the Bureau 
of Insular Affairs, which supervises the civil government of 
Porto Rico and the Philippines. 

100 Hampton Roads, Va. ; 242 Submarines and battle ships, San Diego, 
Cal.; 296 Wrecked battleship Maine, Havana Harbor; 254 
U. S. S. Missouri in Panama Canal ; 585 U. S. fleet, visiting 
Australia. The Secretary of the Navy superintends all mat- 
ters pertaining to the construction, manning, equipment and em- 
ployment of vessels of war. 

554 Guam. Guam is governed by the United States naval officer sta- 
tioned there. 

191 to 197 Yellowstone Park; 222 Crater Lake Park; 228, 229 Yo- 
semite Valley, Cal. The Secretary of the Interior has charge 
of public lands and care of national parks. 



214 COMMUNITY CIVICS 

12, 14, 16 Machinery patented, Massachusetts; 62 to 67 Machinery 
patented, Pittsburgh, Pa. He has charge of the giving of pat- 
ents. 
182 Sioux Indians, Nebraska; 204 Ute Indians, Colorado. He takes 

care of Indian affairs. 
210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The Secretary of the Interior has 
charge of the reclamation service. 

75, 76 Coal miners, Pennsylvania. He promotes improvement in 
methods of mining and safety of miners. 

38 Farms, Hudson Valley, N. Y. ; 85 Delaware; 104, 105 Rice fields, 
South Carolina; 118 Peanuts, Arkansas; 147 Oats, Illinois; 166 
Potatoes, Minnesota; 175 Apples, Missouri; 199 Dry farming, 
Colorado. The Secretary of Agriculture promotes the general 
agricultural interest of the country. 
224 Great trees, Oregon. He administers the forest service. 

71 Crawford Co., Pa. He assists in the development of good roads. 

43 Central New York ; 48 Erie Canal, New York ; 52 Docks, Hoboken, 
N. J.; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 106 Savannah, Ga. ; 119 New Or- 
leans, La.; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 217 Washington; 13 
Cod, Gloucester, Mass. ; 226 Salmon, Astoria, Ore. The Sec- 
retary of Commerce is to promote the commercial interests of 
the nation at home and abroad. He has charge of the Bureau 
of Fisheries. 
4, 5 Marble workers, Proctor, Vt. ; 11, 20 Factory hands, Massa- 
chusetts ; 53 to 55 Silk workers, New Jersey ; 63, 65, 66, 68 Men 
in steel mills, Pittsburgh, Pa.; 74 to 79 Coal miners, Pennsyl- 
vania; 82 Baldwin locomotive works, Philadelphia, Pa.; 131 to 
133, etc. Rubber factory workers, Akron, Ohio. The Secretary 
of Labor is charged with the duty of fostering, promoting and 
developing the welfare of the wage-earners of the United States. 

32 Ellis Island, N. Y. He has care of the Bureau of Immigration. 

89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. The judicial power of 
the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and such 
inferior courts as shall from time to time be established by 
Congress. 
243 to 246 Alaska; 259 to 261 Hawaii. Alaska and Hawaii are terri- 
tories. 
257, 258 Porto Rico ; 546 to 553 Philippines. Porto Rico and the Phil- 
ippines are dependencies. 



16. CITIES OF THE WORLD 

By JOHN NOLEN, A.M., Sc.D. 

CITY PLANNER, LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASS. 

The city looms big in the modern world. Not only in the 
United States, but in every progressive country, population is 
increasing very much more rapidly in cities than in rural dis- 
tricts, especially in England, America, and Germany. Man 
has entered on an urban age. Already 80 per cent, of the 
population of the United Kingdom dwells in cities. 

In the United States the growth of cities is one of the most 
striking facts, as the following percentages of the cities' popu- 
lation here given illustrate: — In 1880, 29.5 per cent, of the 
people of this country dwelt in cities; in 1890, 36.1 per cent.; 
in 1900, 40.5 per cent; in 1910, 46.3 per cent. Today we may 
safely say that virtually one-half of the population of the 
United States is a city population. In contrast it may be noted 
that a hundred years ago only about 5 per cent of the popula- 
tion of this country was living in places of 8,000 inhabitants or 
more. 

The growth of population in cities is directly reflected in 
their greatly increased wealth and influence. The city has 
become one of the main problems of modern democratic so- 
ciety, and is already the most accurate measure of our civiliza- 
tion and culture. 

Cities, like people, have temperament and personalities of 
their own. It has been said that American cities are all alike. 
To some extent this is unfortunately true, when we compare 
our cities with those of the Old World. Yet what different 
types are represented by a comparison, for example, of New 
York with New Orleans, of Philadelphia with San Francisco, 
of Boston with Washington, of Chicago with San Antonio. 
The natural distinctiveness of cities due to origin, history, 
tradition, topography, climate, dominant function, or what 
not, should be looked upon as a characteristic to be preserved 

215 



216 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

and not destroyed. Indeed, a main part of the problem of 
planning and improving cities should be to protect, develop 
and enhance this peculiar quality which each city may, or 
should, have. Thus its buildings, its streets, its parks, its 
monuments and its water fronts may become at once an ex- 
pression of its higher life of service, and of its individuality. 
The building of cities is now one of the great constructive en- 
terprises upon which mankind has seriously launched, and 
one full of possibilities for good. 

The ancient city was mainly military, while the modern city 
is primarily industrial and commercial. The study of cities 
from early days to the present, especially in this industrial 
age, is full of interest and profit. In fact, it is essential as a 
background to the understanding of man's development, and 
as a basis for an efficient participation in modern life. 

Part I 
THE GROWTH AND PLANNING OF CITIES 

A. CITY MAKING 

The modern movement for city planning in the United States may be 
said to have begun about 1890, with a special stimulus along certain 
lines in 1893 through the influence of the World's Fair at Chicago. 
A large amount of city planning, much of it of a high order, was done 
earlier. In no sense, however, did it represent a movement — it was 
not widespread, and it was not continuous nor persistent. 

Notable examples of earlier city planning are : William Penn's plan 
for Philadelphia in 1682, and the plans for other Pennsylvania cities 
like Reading, for instance, which were connected with it; the plan foi 
Williamsburg, Va., in 1699; Oglethorpe's plan for Savannah, in 1733 
the great plan of L'Enfant for Washington, D. C, in 1790. 

The ideas of most significance in the modern city planning move 
ment are : The increasing dependence of the individual upon the pros 
perity of the city as a whole ; the importance of planning, not merel} 
for the routine requirements, but also for those of the future ; and th* 
necessity, for reasons of economy as well as success, to co-ordinate th< 
planning of the various features so that the improvement to be carried 
out will be well related, one to another, far-seeing and permanent. 

i. General Views of Cities Showing Character of City Planr 

25 View looking down on New York's skyscrapers. 

26 General view of water front, New York City. 

27 View of river and Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 

28 General view of old and new city halJs, New York City. 



CIVIC LIFE CENTERS 217 

30 Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. 

90 Pennsylvania Avenue from White House to Capitol. 

93 Panorama of Washington from monument east to Capitol. 

126 General view of San Antonio, Texas. 

212 Salt Lake City, Utah. 

230 General view of Market Street, San Francisco. 

248 Looking down on the city and bay of Panama. 

264 View of Quebec from Dufferin Terrace. 

282 City of Mexico. 

304 Lower city and harbor, Bahia, Brazil, So. Am. 

326 The bay and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 

338 La Guaira, Venezuela. 

360 A glimpse of the old city of York, England. 

365 View of the heart of Edinburgh, Scotland. 

386 Hamburg, Germany. 

387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany. General view. 
389 Kleber place, in the heart of Strassburg, Germany. 
401 View of a Dutcb fishing village. 

421 Bird's-eye view of Paris from Arch of Triumph. 

422 Avenue Champ Elysees, Paris. 

434 General view of Burgos, Spain. 

435 Panorama of Madrid, Spain. 

450 Rome from the balcony of St. Peter's. 

457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 

472 General view, Constantinople. 

475 Athens and the Acropolis, Greece. 

483 The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. 

492 Bird's-eye view of Beyrout, Syria. 

495 View of Jerusalem from Mount of Olives, Palestine. 

526 Tokyo, the Japanese capital. 

558 Bird's-eye view of Alexandria, Egypt. 

586 Melbourne, Australia. 

2. Places in which Civic Life Centers 
Including Monuments 

28 New York City — old and new city halls. 

87,90,91,95 Washington, D. C— The Capitol, White House, etc. 

126 San Antonio, Texas • — Alamo Plaza. 

283 City of Mexico, Mexico — soldiers' monument. 
309 Sao Paulo, Brazil — Municipal Theatre. 

312 Montevideo, Uruguay — Plaza. 

315 Buenos Aires, Argentina — government buildings. 

324 Santiago, Chile — Plaza — also capital city. 

340 Caracas, Venezuela — Halls of Congress. 

351 London, England — Bank of England. 

352 London, England — House of Lords. 
375 Cork, Ireland — street market. 



218 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

356 Stratf ord-on-Avon, England — Shakespeare's Memorial Theater. 

360 York, England — cathedral. 

365 Edinburgh, Scotland — Princess St. and Waverley Gardens. 

368 Stirling, Scotland — Wallace monument. 

380 Dublin, Ireland — O'Connell statue. 

383 Berlin, Germany — Konigs Platz. 

384 Berlin, Germany — bronze statue of Frederick the Great. 

385 Coblenz, Germany — market and monument. 
387 Nuremburg, Germany- — market place. 

389 Strassburg, Germany — Kleber Place. 

393 Cologne, Germany — market. 

395 Brussels, Belgium — market 

397 Namur, Belgium — Citadel Park. 

404 Copenhagen, Denmark — Queen Louise Bridge and park. 

416 Stockholm, Sweden — monument. 

421 Paris, France — Eiffel Tower. 

423 Paris, France — flower market. 

424 Paris, France — Grand Opera House and Opera Place. 
433 Barcelona, Spain — Columbus monument. 

435 Madrid, Spain — Fete grounds. 

450 Rome, Italy— Plaza of St. Peter's. 

460 Innsbruck, Austria — monument — Maria Theresa Platz. 

461 Gratz, Austria — public square. 

466 Serajevo, Bosnia, Austria — market place. 

473 Constantinople, Turkey — Mosque of St. Sophia. 

476 Athens, Greece — Constitution Square. 

482 Petrograd, Russia — park by winter palace. 

485 Warsaw, Poland — market. 

502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal. 

503 Delhi, India — space before Mosque. 
535 Japanese garden. 

555 Tangier, Morocco — market place. 

560 Cairo, Egypt — great Nile bridge. 

582 Cape Town, South Africa — parade grounds. 

587 Melbourne, Australia — Parliament Building. 

3. Historic Buildings and Other Places of Unusual Interest 

6 Boston, Mass.— Old North Church. 

7 Boston, Mass.— Faneuil Hall. 

8 Boston, Mass.— Old State House. 

9 Cambridge, Mass. — Longfellow's home. 
10 Lexington, Mass. — common. 

25 New York City — skyscrapers — Statue of Liberty. 

28 New York City — Old City Hall. 

36 Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. — cemetery. 

37 Newburgh, N. Y. — Washington's headquarters. 
49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. 

73 Gettysburg, Pa.— Culp's Hill. 

80 Philadelphia, Pa.— Liberty Bell. 






HISTORIC PLACES 219 

87 Washington, D. C. — Capitol. 

91 Washington, D. C. — White House. 

95 Washington, D. C. — Library of Congress. 

109 St. Augustine, Fla. — old slave market. 

113 Hodgensville, Ky. — cabin, Lincoln's birthplace. 

146 Marshall Joffre and French Commission at Lincoln's tomb. 

241 San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 

264 Quebec, Canada — view from Dufferin Terrace. 

349 London, England — Tower of London. 

350 London England — Westminster Abbey. 

353 Greenwich, England — Royal Observatory. 

354 Stratford-on-Avon, England — Shakespeare's birthplace. 

355 Shottery, England — Anne Hathaway's cottage. 

360 York, England — cathedral. 

361 Grasmere, England — lake and village. 

362 Rydal Mount, England — Wordsworth's home. 
367 Stirling, Scotland — castle. 

369 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, Scotland. 

372 Ayr, Scotland — Burns' cottage room. 

376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. 

377 Lakes of Killarney, Ireland. 
391 Bingen on the Rhine, Germany. 
425 Paris, France — Notre Dame. 
436 Granada, Spain — Alhambra. 
445 to 448 Alpine towns and villages. 

452 Rome, Italy — Coliseum. 

453 Ruins at Herculaneum, Italy — Vesuvius. 
458 Milan, Italy — cathedral. 

463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia — village below. 

473 Constantinople, Turkey — Mosque of St. Sophia. 

475 Athens, Greece — Acropolis. 

478 Olympia, Greece — Temple of Zeus. 

483 Moscow, Russia — Kremlin. 

502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal. 

525 Tokyo, Japan — Fuji-Yama. 

4. Transportation 

Cities are vitally dependent on transportation. It to a large extent 
determines their location and affects their growth. Local transporta- 
tion for people and merchandise is an important problem of city life. 
See classification on Transportation. 

5. Factories and Mills 

11, 12 Massachusetts — shoes. 
14,15,16 Lawrence, Mass. — cotton. 
17,18 Lawrence, Mass. — woolen. 
19, 20 Holyoke, Mass. — paper. 
21 Providence, R. I. — jewelry. 



220 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

22, 23, 24 South Manchester, Conn. — silk. 
34, 35 New York City — sugar. 

40 Troy, N. Y. — linen collars. 

41 Syracuse, N. Y. — shoes. 

42 Syracuse, N. Y. — salt. 

53, 54, 55 Paterson, N. J.— silk. 
58, 59 Trenton, N. J.— pottery. 

81 Philadelphia, Pa. — woolen. 

82 Philadelphia, Pa. — locomotives. 
124,125 Greenville, Tex. — cotton gin. 
131,132,133 Akron, Ohio — rubber. 

150, 151, 152 Detroit, Mich.— .automobiles. 

227 Astoria, Ore. — salmon canning. 

268,269 Canada — linen manufacture. 

270, 271 Canada ■ — beet sugar. 

272 Canada — leather. 

286 Orizaba, Mexico • — cotton. 

484 Nizhni Novgorod, Russia — bells. 

506 Srinagar, Kashmir — shawls. 

512 Ratnapora, Ceylon — grinding gems. 

532 Japan — shoe shop. 

541 Kiryu, Japan — silk. 

553 Philippines — manila hemp. 



B. THE ELEMENTS OF CITY PLANS 

i. Streets and Roads 

In building a city the first act usually is to lay out some kind of a 
street system. The importance of a street in the city plan rests in the 
fact that it is the channel of all the ordinary means of circulation and 
public service, that it is essential to the profitable development and use 
of property, that only through the opportunities it offers can there be 
any broad or attractive expression of municipal life, and that only 
through a comprehensive, well ordered system of main streets can the 
functions of the city be performed with economy and efficiency. City 
planning means first of all, adequate facilities for circulation. The 
greatest problems are those of main thoroughfares and street railways 
considered in connection with the framework of steam railroads. Such 
a system should be planned for every town and city that hopes for a 
well ordered and satisfactory growth. 

6 Typical street of old Boston affording interesting view of historic 
North Church. 

29 Wall Street, the financial center of the United States. Picturing 

view of old Trinity Church on Broadway, at end of street. 

30 Looking up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. Note 

narrow street, high buildings and resulting congestion of 
traffic. 



STREETS AND ROADS 221 

31 One of the chief problems of the street in large cities is that of 
transportation. A good example of the use of surface cars, ele- 
vated railroads and subways (note entrance). 
90 Comprehensive view of Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C, 
from the White House to the Capitol. Notice Treasury Build- 
ing and Post Office. 

121 Clean, wide, well paved street in Oklahoma City. High building 
(in foreground) is unnecessary in city of this character. 

139 State Street, Chicago. Wide street with ample sidewalks for 
shoppers. High buildings and inadequate transportation system 
have brought unnecessary congestion to the " loop district." 

167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. A worthy center for retail trade. 
Like Fifth Avenue, New York, it is free from street rail- 
ways. 

220 Busy street in Seattle, Wash. 

230 Market Street, the main traffic way of San Francisco. A notable 
street in location, width and terminal views. 

273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Canada, has the generous width of the 
prairies and the unfinished character typical of new cities of 
rapid growth in Canada and the United States. Compare with 
Avenida Rio Branco (305), a South American example of bet- 
ter city planning methods. 

305 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. A new street laid 
out through the heart of a large city. Notice details of street 
works and character of buildings. High standards of street 
planning and suitable laws make this kind of improvement prac- 
ticable in South America and Europe. Contrast American 
streets. 

308 Rua 15th of November (Independence Day), Sao Paulo, Brazil. 
Narrow business street in the old Portuguese section of the 
city. In the newer parts the streets are wide and beautiful. 

337 Quaint scene in one of the streets of Barranquilla, Colombia, 
South America. An example of street and buildings well 
adapted to local needs. 

351 Threadneedle Street, London, England, with view of the Bank of 
England. A typical example of an important street intersection 
in the old city of London. Note irregular street lines and 
building locations and character of street traffic. 

365 Princess Street and Waverley Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland. 
The finest street in Scotland and one of the most beautiful in 
the world. A unique street composition, representing skill and 
planning worthy of the highest praise. The monument of Sir 
Walter Scott is notable as the dominant artistic feature. 

380 Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland, a street widened a century ago 

when Ireland had its own Parliament. The great statue there 
is that of Daniel O'Connell, the Irish leader and beyond is the 
memorial monument to Admiral Nelson. 

381 Royal Avenue, Belfast, Ireland, a broad modern street, typical in 

development of this northern Irish metropolis. Compare with 



222 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

street views in the United States and South America. 
399 A street of water, Amsterdam, Netherlands. This is a public 

highway. Note houses facing on the canal. 
416 A street scene in Stockholm, Sweden. This street leads down to 

the docks where the boats are anchored. 
422 Avenue Champs Elysees, Paris. One of the great streets of 

the world. It symbolizes the magnificence and nobility of 

France. No description is adequate. It must be seen. 
455 Street scene in Palermo, Sicily. In Southern Italy and Sicily the 

people work and play in the streets. They are sociable and love 

to gather, talk and carry on their occupations (sewing and lace 

making) outdoors. The street scenes are always picturesque. 
457 The Grand Canal is a main street or thoroughfare for Venice, 

just as the damps Elysees is for Paris, Unter den Linden for 

Berlin or Fifth Avenue for New York. 

463 The village street is wide and well paved. All Europe is traversed 

by a network of such roads. 

464 Andrassy Street, Budapest, Hungary. Regular, almost monoto- 

nous development of a long straight business street. Everything 
orderly, clean and neat. 
468 A good example of street life in Sofia, Bulgaria. The people en- 
joy being outdoors. The sidewalk coffee house, the picturesque 
costumes and the easy going character of the men and women 
shown in the picture are indications of habits of life different 
from our own. 

474 Street scene in Constantinople, Turkey. Compare with Sofia, Bul- 
garia, and Vienna, Austria. 

486 Krestchatik, principal street of Kief, Russia, a city of 500,000 
people. Compare with European and American city streets, no- 
ticing differences in construction and use. 

493 View over the roofs of Damascus, Syria. The large semi-circular 
pipe-like construction is the steel covering over a narrow street. 
It furnishes protection from the sun. 

504 A spacious thoroughfare in Jaipur, India. Jaipur was built in 
1728 by a native ruler of the same name, who had ideas on the 
planning and building of cities. He laid out his capital care- 
fully after a set plan, the main streets being all 111 feet wide 
and straight. The cross streets are also straight and at right 
angles to the main streets just as many streets in American cities 
are. The streets are all paved and curbed and have broad side- 
walks. All this makes Jaipur look like a western city. The 
merit of such a development is questionable. Streets should be 
laid out and developed to meet the needs of the people and not 
in imitation of other places. 

513 Queen's Road, the busiest street in Hongkong, China. It of- 
fers many interesting contrasts to streets of Europe and Amer- 
ica. 



BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS 223 

516 Street construction in Nanking, China. Men take the place of 
animals or motor engines in such work because they are 
cheaper. 

542 A street scene in Seoul, Korea. Everyone wears white, even when 
the house-tops are covered with snow. Note that there are no 
wheeled vehicles and consequently no roads fit for them. The 
strength of the nation is in the coolie's back. 

547 The Calle Real, or King Street, Manila, P. I. Narrow, uninter- 
esting street. 

557 Gates at one of main streets of Tunis, Africa. On the streets 
within, one sees camels, donkeys, medicine-men, snake-charmers, 
water-carriers, Mohammedan women with veils over their faces, 
fierce Arabs, French soldiers, Jewesses in white trousers, and 
Turks in bright pantaloons. 

590 A street in Hobart (pop. 28,000), the leading city and capital of 
Tasmania. Much like an ordinary small modern American city 
with its telegraph and trolley poles. 

2. Bridges and Viaducts 

Bridges and viaducts span bodies of water or valleys or roads, thus 
affording passage and conveyance for people and goods. There are 
many types, the principal being arch bridges, suspension bridges, girder 
bridges, and sometimes mixed types. The choice of type for any par- 
ticular location or purpose depends largely upon the cost, the strength 
or permanence desired, and the appearance. Masonry bridges of the 
arch type, where suitable, are ordinarily preferred for appearance. 
27 Suspension Bridge, New York. Built at cost of fifteen million 

dollars. It required thirteen years, 1870-1883, to construct. 
61 General view of bridges at Pittsburgh. The Allegheny and 
Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio River where Pitts- 
burgh is now located. It has more bridges than any other city in 
the United States. 
101 View of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Bridge at Harpers Ferry, 
W. Va., situated at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Po- 
tomac rivers. 
170 Great power dam and locks in the Mississippi River at Keokuk, 
Iowa. This dam, with the power house, lock, dry lock, sea wall, 
and ice fender, all made of concrete, have a total length of two 
and one-half miles. The lock is 400 feet long and 110 feet 
wide. 
174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo., costing over ten million dollars, with 
sections for railways to pass over it. It has also driveways for 
vehicles, and walks for foot passengers. The high arches pro- 
vide the necessary clearance for large river steamboats. 
210 The Roosevelt Dam, near Phoenix, Ariz., was built by the United 
States Reclamation Service. 

330 A railway bridge in Peru. An engineer from the United States 



224 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

laid out this railway, solving the problems of tunnels, bridges, 
curves and cuts. 

348 London Bridge. Every day more than a hundred thousand peo- 
ple walk over this bridge, and more than twenty thousand ve- 
hicles cross it. There has been a London Bridge since 1209. 
The present bridge, completed in 1831, is 928 feet long and 63 
feet wide. It consists of five granite arches. 

366 The great Forth Bridge, spanning the Firth of Forth, Queens- 
ferry, near Edinburgh, Scotland. 

379 Suspension Bridge at Kenmare, County Kerry, in the west of 
Ireland, not far from Killarney, and in the same scenic district. 

391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany, in old Roman style. 

392 Stone and steel bridge over the historic Rhine at Bonn. 

397 Bridge at Namur, Belgium, over the River Meuse, the natural fron- 
tier between Belgium and Germany. 

404 The Queen Louise Bridge leads to Copenhagen proper to the north 
part of a section called Frederiksborg. Along either side of the 
stream are parks and beautiful, broad streets. Note fine ap- 
proaches to bridge. 

423 St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, is one of the chief passageways from 
the Latin Quarter to the larger part of the city that lies on the 
right bank of the Seine. The flower market is shown as it looks 
at six o'clock in the morning, and the universal love of flowers 
by French people of all classes is here illustrated. 

442 Chapel Bridge, familiar to all travelers, crossing the River Reuss, 
Lucerne. A roofed bridge which winds across the river, fur- 
nishing a most convenient connection. The tower near the cen- 
ter of the bridge is the old Wasserthurn. 

450 River Tiber, and its bridges. Also see 451. 

451 Note character of arched bridge over the Tiber, with retaining 

walls and embankments. Also the Castle of St. Angelo and St. 
Peter's Cathedral. 

456 A succession of bridges across the Arno at Florence. The most 
interesting of all is the one in the foreground, the Ponte Vecchio, 
providing communication between Uffizi and Pitti Palaces. 
Broad and handsome quays called Lungarno skirt the river. 

470 The big railroad bridge over the Danube at Czernavoda, Roumania, 
one of the centers of heavy fighting in the European War. 

560 Great bridge across the Nile at Cairo, an iron structure on stone 
foundations. 

472 A busy bridge connecting Stamboul, the seat of the Turkish gov- 
ernment, with Galata, the business center of the town, toward 
which we are looking. The high tower in Galata is used as a 
lookout for fires. 



WATERWAYS AND HARBORS 225 

500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta, India. 
560 Drawbridge over the Nile, Egypt. Traffic across the bridge is 
mixed, and there appears to be no regulation or order. 

3. Waterways, Water Fronts, and Harbors 

The proper development of water frontages, harbors and docks is es- 
sential to practical city building. The most obvious division of the 
waterways is into wide and narrow. The former comprise the large 
lakes, the ocean with its wide straits, bays, and other frontages, broad 
rivers, and in general, all those waters on the borders of which vessels 
can be moored at right angles to the shore. Narrow waterways con- 
sist of canals, canalized rivers, and some narrow frontages of the ocean. 
It may be said in general that the width of waterway is not so im- 
portant as its continuation as far as possible into the upland. Many 
narrow waterways, like those at Cleveland and Chicago, for example, 
carry great tonnages, thus serving the industrial districts which they 
tap. 

The development upon the upland determines to a large extent the 
type of the adjacent water front structures. Three types are of great- 
est importance: (1) The commercial, providing for large manufac- 
turing and shipping interests; (2) the residential, adapted to the lo- 
cation of beautiful homes and private estates; and (3) the recreational 
use of water frontages for park, boulevard and other recreational pur- 
poses. 

Cities that are fortunate in also being ports should base their city 
plans upon the peculiar opportunity that the port affords. Mistakes in 
planning and development which exist at most of the older port cities 
of the United States should gradually be corrected, and new improve- 
ments undertaken with reference to a preconceived design. 

The water front constitutes one of the chief features of any city lo- 
cated on navigable water. Therefore the proper correlation of water 
carriers with other forms of transportation is of the utmost importance. 
Both beauty and utility call for development in accordance with a plan 
that recognizes the need for unity. Experience teaches that develop- 
ment on the basis of unity is possible usually only where the policy of 
complete public ownership prevails. 

25 View of part of New York water front and Statue of Liberty 

from the Woolworth Tower. 

26 The water front of New York City from the Brooklyn side, 

showing the shipping and buildings of lower Manhattan. 

27 View of the East River and the Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 

32 The gateway for immigrants to America at Ellis Island, New 

York. 
39 The Hudson River has great variety of scenery, some of the 

finest being in the neighborhood of West Point, as shown in 

illustration. 
48 The Erie Canal has been a source of commercial wealth to Buffalo 

and other cities located on its banks. 



226 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

50 The water front of Niagara Falls and the Niagara River have 

made important contributions to both the wealth of the country 
and the pleasure of its people. 

51 The Palisades of the Hudson are a form of natural scenery whose 

preservation depends upon public ownership and control. 

52 Many of the docks of the great Trans-Atlantic liners are located 

in Hoboken, across the river from New York. 

60 Atlantic City, N. J., is the most popular all-the-year-round seaside 

resort in the United States, with more than a million visitors 
yearly. The chief attractions are the beach, the Board Walk, 
the fine hotels, and the equable climate. 

61 Pittsburgh owes its importance as an industrial city partly to its 

water front, and the means of communication which it furnishes. 
99 Operations of the life-saving corps at the Jamestown Exposi- 
tion. 

100 Warships of the United States in Hampton Roads at the time of 

the Jamestown Exposition. 

101 The water front at Harpers Ferry, West Va. 

106 The Savannah River is given over to commercial development. It 
is one of the first ports on the Atlantic seaboard in the amount 
of cotton which it ships. 

Ill The harbor of Key West, Florida, is an important sponge mar- 
ket. 

119 New Orleans is a fair example of the many levees on the Mis- 

sissippi River where cotton is one of the staple shipments. 

120 The Delta of the Mississippi River, Louisiana, where pilots are 

taken on the large river steamers. 

148 One of the great national problems is the prevention of floods, 
by far the most damaging being those caused by rivers. The 
view shows the common way of keeping the waters from 
spreading, the banks or dikes being made of bags of sand. A 
city plan should include preservation and protection of all flood 
channels. 

154 Ship canal, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, providing for the greatest 
canal traffic in the worJd. 

164 Part of the transportation system of the Great Lakes. Two Har- 
bors, Minnesota, owes its importance to its heavy shipment of 
iron ore. 

174 View of the Mississippi River at St. Louis, showing the great 
span of the Eads Bridge. 

210 Lake formed by the construction of the Roosevelt Dam near 
Phoenix, Arizona, which backs up the Salt River for sixteen 
miles, and holds enough water to flood over a million acres to a 
depth of one foot. 

217 A view of Puget Sound, Washington, showing shipping of lumber. 

242 View of the great bay and harbor of San Diego, with submarines 
in the foreground and battleships and torpedo boats beyond. 

248 The bay of Panama with the city in the foreground, near the 
Pacific end of the Canal. One of the oldest cities in the Wes- 
tern world. 



WATERWAYS AND HARBORS 227 

257 An interesting view of the harbor of San Juan, Porto Rico. 

278 The harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland, the most important fac- 
tor in the development of the city. 

280 The harbor of Vera Cruz, the principal port of Mexico. 

299 The bay of Santiago, Cuba. The harbor is a first class one, with 
very deep water and entirely landlocked. 

304 Harbor of Bahia, Brazil, So. America, with a portion of the 
lower city in the foreground. 

313 Harbor of Montevideo, Uruguay, So. America. Illustration shows 

dredging operation to deepen channel and make harbor navi- 
gable. 

314 Entrance to harbor of Buenos Aires, Argentina, So. America. The 

Plata River is shallow, and dredges are kept constantly at work 
to keep the channels open. 

326 The bay and city of Valparaiso, Chile. 

347 The harbor of Liverpool, like many other great harbors of the 
world, has been made good mainly by the work of man. It is 
built on the broad mouth of the Mersey River, which is con- 
stantly dredged to keep a channel deep enough for the big liners. 

374 Queenstown Harbor, Ireland, is the port of call for the city of 
Cork, fourteen miles away. The harbor is large and safe. 

383 View of the River Spree in Berlin, Germany, with the Reichstag 
buildings located on its banks. 

391 The Rhine Valley at Bingen, Germany. 

399 A view of the canal in Amsterdam, Holland. 

400 Rotterdam, Holland, one of the world's great ports. Ship canals 

connect the city with the ocean. Notice the load of bricks. 
416 Docks and warehouses, Stockholm. This city is the commercial 

center of Sweden. 
420 Harbor of Goteborg, Sweden. The business character of this 

port is indicated by conditions on the docks. 

429 The new harbor and docks of Marseilles, France, large and well 

protected by a breakwater two miles long. 

430 The Gulf of Napoule in the Riviera, showing Cannes, " a seaside 

paradise," on its warm banks. 

432 A view of the Mediterranean and Monaco. The most widely 

known city of this principality is Monte Carlo, the famous gam- 
bling resort. 

433 The harbor of Barcelona, which makes it the busiest city in Spain. 
457 A view of the Grand Canal, Venice, which discharges its waters 

into the Adriatic Sea. 
489 Interesting view of the Bosphorus toward the Black Sea from the 

heights above Scutari, Turkey in Asia. 
501 The Ganges River before the Temple in Benares, India. 
509 The Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. 
511 The harbor of Colombo, Ceylon, which has been largely made, a 



228 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

long breakwater being constructed to afford the necessary pro- 
tection. 

514 A busy seaport, Canton, China, with a view of fishermen's houses. 

515 The Yangtse River at Chinkiang, China, the third longest river 

system in the world. See 517. 

517 Another view of the Yangtse River, and of the picturesque towns 
and villages which cluster densely on its banks. 

525 View of Fuji-Yama, Japan, from the water. 

556 The harbor of Algiers, which is a natural bay protected by break- 
waters. The port is equipped with modern machinery, railway 
switches, derricks, etc. as in Europe. 

559 The Suez Canal, Egypt. It runs through level, sandy country, as 
shown in the view. Compare with the Panama Canal, 248 to 
256. 

569 The Great Dam of the Nile at the head of the first cataract of 
the Nile, six hundred miles above Cairo. 

574 The port of Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of Africa, five hundred 
miles south of the Equator. Dar-es-Salaam is the capital of 
German East Africa. Note beauty of palm trees. 

591 Hauroki Bay, showing the harbor of Auckland, New Zealand. 

The stereographs or slides presenting more definitely views of docks 
and harbors are as follows: 25, 26, 32, 52, 106, 111, 119, 154, 217, 242, 
267, 278, 280, 299, 304, 313, 314, 347, 374, 400, 420, 429, 433, 511, 556, 
574, 591. 

4. Parks and Playgrounds 

Every city worthy of the name has public parks and playgrounds of 
some sort, and they are now recognized as a necessity of city life, a 
part of the city plan, just as streets and schools are. They contribute 
to the pleasure and health of urban populations more than any other 
recreative feature, and furnish the most necessary and valuable antidote 
to the artificiality, confusion, and feverishness of life in the cities. At 
the present time the value of parks and open spaces in towns and cities 
is very generally appreciated. It is recognized that such facilities as 
parks afford are not only desirable, but increasingly necessary ; in 
fact, indispensable. In a vague way there is approval, too, of a large 
increase in both parks and playgrounds. But few even of the more 
progressive communities appear yet to understand with any clearness 
that these open spaces in cities are of great variety ; that they are, or 
should be selected and developed by experts to serve essentially different 
purposes, and that the failure to appreciate this fact and to keep it con- 
stantly in mind leads to great waste and inefficiency in our public 
grounds. 
10 Common, Lexington, Mass. A good example of New England 
open space, usually reserved in the center of old towns. 



PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 229 

28 City Hall Park, New York. A valuable breathing space in the 

great metropolis. It affords an excellent foreground to public 

and semi-public buildings. 
31 Small park spaces, even room simply for a few trees at street 

intersections in a large city, are decidedly worth while, as here 

illustrated. 
39 The scenery of the Hudson is among the finest river scenery in the 

world. 

49 The Falls of Niagara, and part of the State Park Reservation, are 

more frequented, probably, than any other small park in the 
United States. 

50 The American Falls, Niagara, showing the beauty of their winter 

scenery. 

51 Palisades of the Hudson River provide the most striking topo- 

graphical feature of the Inter-State Parks of New York and 
New Jersey. 
73 Culp's Hill, Gettysburg, an illustration of a military memorial 

park. 
83 School gardens are one of the most practical forms of educational 

outdoor work combined with the zest of recreation. 
90 All of the public buildings of Washington are surrounded with 

well planted open spaces and parks. 
95 The Congressional Library, Washington, has a well designed en- 
vironment. 

114 Lookout Mountain is a national park. 

126 The Alamo Plaza, San Antonio. Such plazas, with buildings 
round about them, are to be preferred to the more usual Amer- 
ican method of putting public buildings in the center of open 
blocks. 

191 The National Parks of the United States are the largest and most 
beautiful parks of any nation in the world. They are being 
made more and more accessible to visitors. 

191 to 197 Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. One of the most 
frequented National Parks. 

201 Pike's Peak from the Garden of the Gods, near Manitou, Col. A 
place famed for its beauty and mineral springs. 

208 Grand Canyon. A place of indescribable beauty. 

219 Crevasse of Paradise Glacier, Mount Rainier, National Park, 
Wash. 

228, 229 Yosemite National Park, California. 

290 Dancing in national costume is one of the favorite pastimes of 
Mexican people. 

305 Park-like street in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

306 Children of illustrious Brazilian families. 

312 Open space or plaza in Uruguay, typical of South American cities. 
316 Palermo Park, Buenos Aires, with view of afternoon drive or 
parade, common in many places. 



230 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

329 Plaza in the formal style in Arequipa. Harvard University has 
built an observatory near this place. 

389 In almost every German city the important public buildings and 
the principal stores are arranged around open spaces which are 
usually parked, as here illustrated. 

422 The principal boulevards of Paris, especially the Champs Elysees, 
are so constructed and planted as to become parkways leading 
from one important point in the city to another. 

435 It is important for every city to have one or more well located 
open places to be used for fetes, fairs, and other public cele- 
brations. 

455 The recreation of people in Southern Italy is confined largely to 
the public streets except on special holidays and Sundays, when 
they visit the more distant parks. 

482 The advantage of ample open space around the government build- 
ings at Petrograd is here well illustrated. 

520 Chinese school children, Peking, China. 

534 Japan is a fairyland of flowers, especially when the cherry trees 

are in bloom. The tea houses are always given a lovely setting. 

535 Japanese gardens have their own style of picturesque design in 

which the question of scale is given special consideration. Beau- 
tiful results are secured in the smallest possible area. 
588 Zoological Garden, Adelaide, Australia, combining scientific inter- 
est with outdoor recreation. 

5. Public Buildings 

Public buildings constitute an essential element in a city plan, and of 
first importance is their location with regard to the city as a whole. 
They may be grouped in one center, or in various centers, according to 
the plan of the city and the local requirements. They are usually 
rightly placed when grouped in locations that will suit economic condi- 
tions, and when they are readily accessible to the public. 

The location of public buildings is bound up with the general struc- 
ture of the city. This means especially the street system and the sys- 
tem of transportation, which is largely governed by the street system. 
While building groups may be advantageously placed on prominent 
streets in a rectangular system, or composed with principal intersec- 
tions in the system of streets, yet for the more important groups the 
best location is at a focus of a number of streets. 

7 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. 

8 Old State House from Court Street, Boston, Mass. 

28 Old and New City Halls and World Building, from City Hall 

Park, New York City. 

80 The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 

87 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. 

88 House of Representatives (Interior), Washington, D. C. 

89 Supreme Court Room in the Capitol, Washington, D. C. 

90 From War, State and Navy Building — White House — Treas- 



PUBLIC BUILDINGS 231 

ury, Pennsylvania Avenue and Capitol, Washington, D. C. 

91 The White House, Washington, D. C. 

92 Annex to White House (Cabinet Room), Washington. D. C. 

93 From Washington Monument east to Capitol over Agricultural 

Department grounds, Washington, D. C. 

95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C 

96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. 
109 Old slave market, St. Augustine, Fla. 

126 The Alamo, San Antonio, Texas. 

260 With the flag goes the public school — Royal School, Honolulu, 

Hawaii. 
309 Municipal Theater, handsomest playhouse fn the world, Sao 

Paulo, Brazil, So. Am. 
315 The government buildings from the balcony of the Bourse, 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, So. Am. 
324 Cathedral and Plaza. Women in native dress, Santiago, Chile, 

So. Am. 
335 Famous Copacabana Church near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia. 
340 National university and halls of Congress, Caracas, Venezuela. 

349 Tower of London, London, England. 

350 Westminster Abbey, London, England. 

351 The Bank of England, London, England. 

352 The House of Lords, London, England. 

354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 

355 Anne Hathaway's cottage, Shottery, England. 

356 Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 
360 An interesting glimpse of the old city of York with its cathedral, 

England. 
362 Rydal Mount, home of poet Wordsworth, Lake District, England. 
367 Historic Stirling Castle, Scotland. 
376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. 

383 The Reiehstags-Gebaiide, Berlin, Germany. 

384 Royal Palace, Berlin, Germany. 

387 Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany. 

417 Royal Palace (Council Room), Stockholm, Sweden. 

424 The Grand Opera, Paris, France. 

425 Notre Dame, Paris, France. 

436 Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain. 

482 Senate and the Academy on the Vasili Island, Petrograd, Russia. 

501 Temple, Benares, India. 

502 The Taj Mahal, Agra, India. 

503 The Jnmma Mosque. Delhi. Tndia. 
582 City Hall, Cape Town, So. Africa. 

587 Federal Parliament Building, Melbourne, Australia. 

6. Residences and Homes 

The variety of houses due to climate, wealth, education, work, habit, 
or other causes is here well illustrated. 



232 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

9 Craigie House, Cambridge, Mass. Home of the poet Longfellow. 
A fine example of the Colonial style of architecture. The land 
opposite the house has been acquired as a public memorial park, 
thus keeping open forever the view of the house, and also the 
view from the house to the Charles River and Soldiers' Field 
beyond. 

113 Cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born, Hodgensville, Ky. A 
humble but well constructed log cabin. The Lincoln Farm As- 
sociation has built over the cabin a beautiful Greek Temple. 

205 Cliff Palace in the Mesa Verde, Col. Homes of the cliff-dwellers, 
the ancestors of our Pueblo Indians. Interesting architectural 
ruins. 

211 Pueblo of Taos Indians, New Mexico. In this one building the 
whole village resides. 

249 Dwellings erected for employees of the old French Canal Com- 
pany, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. Contrast the more recent 
dwellings constructed by the United States Government under 
the direction of such men as Gen. Goethals and Gen. Gorgas. 

281 Adobe hut, City of Mexico. Home of the peon, the peasant of 
Mexico, descendant of the Aztec. The adobe or sundried brick 
is in use widely as a suitable building material throughout the 
Southwest. 

299 Simple but homogeneous character of homes in Santiago, Cuba, due 
to the uniform shape and material of the buildings and the har- 
mony of the tiled roofs. 

336 White houses with red tiled roofs in the best residence section of 
Guayaquil. Ecuador. Beauty of street view due to simplicity 
and harmony of buildings, the attractive balconies, and the oc- 
casional variety due to church spires. 

338 The houses of La Guaira, Venezuela, fit the slopes of the hills. 
The city is small, and the population composed mostly of ne- 
groes, Indians, Spanish, and half-breeds. 

354 Shakespeare's birthplace in Stratford-on-Avon, Eng., is a two- 

story house, typical of English village architecture, with a small 
garden back of it. 

355 The Anne Hathaway Cottage at Shottery belongs now to Great 

Britain. The building is almost exactly as it was when Anne 
Hathaway lived there. Fine example of English farmhouse with 
heavy timbers and thick thatched roof. 
362 The neat, mellow, vine-clad, characteristic English home of Words- 
worth at Rydal Mount. England. 

372 Room in which Robert Burns was born. House consisting of two 

rooms, now owned by the Burns Society of Ayr. 

373 Peasant home in the Scottish Highlands. The walls of these 

peasant houses are made of stones or bricks, and the roofs are 
of thatch. Simple as they are, they are very pleasant to the 



TYPES OF CITIES 233 

eye. The walls are covered with vines, and each cottage has its 
garden. 

389 The apartment houses in Strassburg, Germany, and in other Ger- 
man and Continental European cities, are the characteristic 
homes of the people. Compare with cottage homes in Eng- 
land. 

402 Village homes in the Netherlands, with characteristic neatness, but 
no planting. 

455 Picturesque street scene in tenement district, Palermo, Sicily. 
The Italians in America seek the same sort of housing. 

457 Beautiful Renaissance Italian homes on the Grand Canal, Venice, 
full of art and beauty. A fit environment of the civilization of 
the time. 

514 The boat-homes of the Chinese in the river or sea towns. People 
are born in houseboats, and their fathers before them. These 
boats are much better to live in than are many of the land 
houses of the lower class of Chinese. The larger ones are 75 
feet long and 15 feet wide. They usually have three rooms, — 
a hall room, a living room, and a sleeping room,— which are 
again broken up for use by means of screens. 

526 The native skill of the Japanese is evidenced by their happy com- 
bination of use and beauty. This view of Tokyo, the Japanese 
capital, shows the buildings close together, the houses low, and 
the roofs of heavy tile. 

542 Homes of the Koreans. Note white robes of men even in winter, 
with snow on the roofs of the houses. 

546 The " cascos " are the floating homes of many thousands in the 
Philippines. Compare with 514. 

Part II 

TYPES OF CITIES AND CITY LIFE 

Cities generally owe their existence to geographic influences, and 
such individuality as they have is due largely to topography. The 
chief topographical characteristics determining cities are the harbors, 
rivers, hills and plains. It has taken decades of urban development 
and of mistakes to impress upon the cities of the United States the 
necessity to respect and conserve these natural forces, to which they 
owe not only their form but often their very life. 

The classification of cities according to type or character may be 
conveniently considered under two heads: (1) Types distinguished 
by the size of the city; and (2) types distinguished by the dominant 
function of the city. 

A. CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE 

i. Cities of 1,000,000 Population or More 

25 to 31 New York City— (5,620,0^ ^ largest city in the New World, 
a commercial city. 



234 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

139 Chicago, 111.— (2,701,705) a railroad center. 

80 to 84 Philadelphia, Pa.— (1,823,158) third city of U. S. in size. 
304 to 307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil— (1,200,000) capital and seaport. 
314 to 316 Buenos Aires, Argentina— (1,637,000) largest city in South 

America. 
348 to 352 London, England— (7,258,263) largest city in the world. 
383, 384 Berlin, Germany— (1,900,000) the heart of the German Empire. 
421 to 425 Paris, France— (3,300,000) largest city on the continent of 

Europe and third largest in the world. 
462 Vienna, Austria— (2,400,000) a great inland city. 

482 Petrograd, Russia— (2,300,000) not a natural site. 

483 Moscow, Russia— (1,100,000) the center of Russian life. 
500 Calcutta, India— (1,222,000) at the mouth of the Ganges. 
520 Peking, China— (1,200,000) capital of the empire. 

526 Tokio, Japan— (240,000) a capital city. 

2. Cities of 500,000 to 1,000,000 Population 

6 to 8 Boston, Mass. — center of life for N. E. 

61 Pittsburgh, Pa. — a wonderful natural site at the head of a great 
river and in the midst of mineral deposits. 
230 San Francisco, Cal. — on the finest bay on our Pacific Coast. 
347 Liverpool, Eng.— England's door open towards America. 

399 Amsterdam, Hoi. — the largest city of a seafaring nation. 

400 Rotterdam, Hoi. — the chief seaport of the Netherlands. 
450 to 452 Rome, Italy — once the ruler of the world. 

454 Naples, Italy — on the Bay of Naples. 

513 Hong Kong, China — an English possession. 

560 Cairo, Egypt — an ancient city. 

587 Melbourne, Australia — metropolis for Australia. 

3. Cities of 100,000 to 500,000 Population 

87 to 95 Washington, D. C. — a governmental city. 
119 New Orleans, La. — center of cotton and sugar trade. 
167 Minneapolis, Minn. — center for grain lands of the north. 

212 Salt Lake City, Utah — in the midst of a desert. 
326, 327 Valparaiso, Chile — a protected harbor. 

475, 476 Athens, Greece — once the center of the civilized world. 
547 Manila, P. I. — a strategic position. 

4. Cities of less than 100,000 Population 

14 to 18 Lawrence, Mass. — a city built up by one industry. 
106 Savannah, Ga. — outlet for products of Southern pine belt. 

213 Ogden, Utah — a city surrounded by a desert. 
264 Quebec, Can. — the fortified gateway to Canada. 

277 Vancouver, B. C. — Canada's doorway to the Pacific. 

5. Cities of Rapid Growth 

116 Birmingham, Ala. — near deposits of coal and iron. Its population 
increased by one-third in the last decade. 



CAPITAL CITIES 235 

121 Oklahoma City, Ok. — center of oil lands and rich farming country. 
131 to 133 Akron, Ohio — the growth of the rubber industry gave Akron 

an increase of 200% between 1910 and 1920. 
150 to 152 Detroit, Mich. — automobile manufacture more than doubled 

the population of Detroit in the last decade. 
230 San Francisco, Cal. — at the discovery of gold this city sprang up 

almost in a night. 

B. CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO DOMINANT FUNCTION 

i. Capital Cities 

A country or state should show interest in its capital city as soon 
as it is enough conscious of its own unity to have pride in its own 
ideals and customs and to possess a sense of its own individuality. 
Our state capitals have not, as a rule developed in this way. In Europe, 
the capital of almost every kingdom, petty, principality, or dukedom, 
is embellished with splendid palaces, museums, gardens, art galleries, 
sculpture, opera houses, wide streets and promenades all expressing 
some phase of their community life. Such embellishment has proved 
a source of new wealth for travellers make long visits to such cities 
and spend millions of dollars thus justifying in another way the wisdom 
of this enlightened policy. 

87 to 95 Washington, D. C— one of the few cities built according to 

a plan. 
305 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil — capital city and seaport. 
315 Buenos Aires, Argentina — the growing capital of a new people. 
348 to 352 London, Eng. — the city with its famous buildings and its 

streets and monuments seems to express the long struggle of the 

Anglo-Saxon for civil liberty. 
383, 384 Berlin, Germany— (1,900,000) the heart of the German Empire. 
395 Brussels, Bel.— a little Paris. 
399 Amsterdam, — Netherlands — essentially an expression of the Dutch 

people. 
421 to 425 Paris, France — the most beautiful city in the world, because 

it expresses the ideals of the nation it is loved by every citizen 

as the soul of France. 
450 to 452 Rome, Italy — the very architecture expresses power and 

domination. 
475 Athens, Greece — even in ruins, its buildings express the spiritual 

characteristics of the ancient Greek. 

Resort Cities 

60 Atlantic City, N. J. — a summer resort. 
110 Palm Beach, Fla. — a winter resort. 
427 Chamonix, France — for mountain scenery. 
430 Cannes, France, — lovely scenery and climate. 
457 Venice, Italy — visited for its scenery and its art. 



236 CITIES OF THE WORLD 

560 Cairo, Egypt — picturesque in both past and present. 

3. Financial Cities 
29 Wall St. New York City — the war made New York the financial 
center of the world. 
351 The Bank of England, London, — the most famous bank, until lately 

the financial center of the world. 
421 Paris, France — one of the richest of cities. 
383 Berlin, Germany — great financial city of the German Empire. 
4. Cities Noted for One or Two Industries 

13 Gloucester, Mass. — cod fish. 

14 to 18 Lawrence, Mass.- — more than sixty per cent, of its people 

work in textile mills. 

21 Providence, R. I.— jewelry. 

40 Troy, N. Y.— collars. 

53 to 55 Paterson, N. J. — silk. 

58, 59 Trenton, N. J. — porcelain. 

61 to 67 Pittsburgh, Pa. — iron and steel. 

76 to 78 Scranton, Pa. — anthracite coal. 

86 Baltimore, Md. — oysters. 
106 Savannah, Ga. — turpentine. 
116 Birmingham, Ala. — iron and steel. 
119 New Orleans, La. — cotton. 
131 to 133 Akron, O— rubber. 
140 to 144 Chicago — packing houses. 
150 to 152 Detroit, Mich.— automobiles. 
308 to 311 Sao Paulo, Brazil— coffee. 
581 Kimberly, S. Africa. — diamonds. 



5. Centers of Religious Interest 

There is a tendency for religions to manifest unusual strength in 
special sections, or to become more dominant in particular cities. The 
following list illustrates this tendency. 
6 Boston, Mass. — a center of Congregationalism, Unitarianism and 
Christian Science. 
80 Philadelphia, Pa. — Society of Friends, both Orthodox and Hick- 
site. 
212 Salt Lake City, Utah — Mormonism. 

365 Edinburgh, Scotland — City of Knox and Presbyterianism. 
450, 451 Rome, Italy — center of Roman Catholic Church. 
473 Constantinople, Turkey — Mohammedanism, Turkish Sultan its 

head. 
475 Athens, Greece — site of old Athenian shrines and Panathenaic 
procession. 

482 Petrograd, Russia — center of Greek Catholic church. 

483 Moscow, Russia — Kremlin, former center of Greek Catholic 

church. 



TYPES OF CITIES 237 

495 Jerusalem, Syria — former Jewish capital, center of early Chris- 
tian church. 

501 Benares, India — sacred shrine of Brahman religion, also birth- 

place of Buddha. 

502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal, temple and holy place of Mohammedans. 

503 Delhi, India — holy place of Mohammedans. 

560 Cairo, Egypt — center of Mohammedan education. 

6. Coast Cities — Ports for Ocean Vessels 

25. 26 New York City — the best harbor and greatest commercial city 

of the western hemisphere. 
52 Hoboken, N. J. 
230 San Francisco — on a magnificent bay, the open door towards the 

Pacific. 
257 San Juan, P. R. — a fine harbor. 
280 Vera Cruz — a poor harbor on a sandy coast. 
295 Havana, Cuba — the harbor is large enough to hold all the navies 

of the world. 
314 Buenos Aires, Argentina — this great harbor must constantly be 

dredged. 
326 Valparaiso, Chile, — a land locked harbor. 

347 Liverpool, England — a doorway open to America. 
374 Queenstown, Ire. — a great natural harbor. 

457 Venice, Italy — once the commercial center of the world. 
472 to 474 Constantinople — the strategic center of the world. 

513 Hong-Kong — the city of Victoria on the island Hong-Kong. 

514 Canton, China. 

7. Cities on Rivers — Ports for Ocean Vessels 

80 Philadelphia, Pa.- — Delaware River. 
106 Savannah, Ga. — Savannah River. 
119 New Orleans, La. — Mississippi River. 
264 Quebec, Can. — St. Lawrence River. 
267 Montreal, Can. — St. Lawrence River. 

348 London. Eng. — Thames River. 
386 Hamburg, Ger. — Elbe River. 

8. Inland Cities on Rivers and Lakes 

48 Buffalo, N. Y.— Lake Erie. 

61 Pittsburgh, Pa. — head of Ohio River. 
128, 129 Conneaut. O— Lake Erie. 
139 Chicago. 111. — Lake Michigan. 
150 to 152 Detroit, Mich.— Detroit River. 
164 Two Harbors, Minn. — Lake Superior. 
174 St. Louis, Mo. — Mississippi River. 
421 Paris, France — Seine River. 
462 Vienna, Austria, — Danube River. 
501 Benares, India — Ganges River, 



ENGLISH 

INTRODUCTION 

By FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, Ph.D., Litt.D. 

PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

The trend of modern education has been steadily away from 
interest in mere words. This is the meaning of the great de- 
velopment in museums, shops and laboratories in the equip- 
ment of our schools. We have come to realize that merely 
to hear or read about a thing and even to be able to talk or 
write about it, is no guarantee that the thing itself is known 
and understood. In the case of material objects, really to 
know involves to see, and, if possible, to handle and to use. If 
he is to have even the foundations of an education, his range 
of concepts must include many things that are far removed 
from his immediate environment. If he lives in the great 
Mississippi Valley, for example, we try to help him gain some 
idea of the sea, of the great mountain peaks and ranges, of 
cataracts like Niagara, of lumbering in the forests of the 
North and East, of life and industry in the East, the South 
and the Far West. We count it necessary that he should pic- 
ture to himself many of the scenes of historic or literary in- 
terest in Europe, the strange and teeming life of Asia, the un- 
couth and meager civilization of Africa. Since he cannot go 
to them we must somehow bring them to him. And here is 
where the miracle of pictures comes in. 

Most of us feel that stereoscopic pictures give the illusion 
of reality better than flat pictures. The sense of distance, 
the size of mountains, the depths of precipices and valleys — 
as in the Grand Canyon — often seem incredible for the first 
time when viewed through the stereoscope. 

How does all this apply to the study of English? In the 
first place, literature makes its appeal to the eye oftener than 
to any other sense. It presupposes in the reader a long 
record of seeing things. The shapes and colors of clouds and 
mountains, of flowers and birds and animals, the forms of 

238 



ENGLISH 239 

trees and the look of lakes and streams, the customs of 
strange peoples, the houses and streets of cities, the great 
centers of commerce with their wharves and depots, — all these 
are frequently assumed to be a part of the reader's stock of 
visual memories. And so the reader's grasp of the content 
is firmer, if the text recalls these memories. 

But how if this assumption is mistaken and the reader 
has no such picture in his memory? Here the help of pic- 
tures is virtually a necessity. Think how little the pupil could 
get, unassisted, of a description of a cactus-covered desert. 
Though the appeal to the eye is far from being the only ap- 
peal that literature makes, it is so frequent as to be almost 
fundamental. The stereoscopic picture is the most vividly real 
of all photographs ; therefore, with some satisfaction to our 
sense of the fitness of things we remember that the present con- 
venient form of the stereoscope was invented by a man who 
combined the interests of science and literature, one of our best 
known American authors — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

The Keystone Series helpful as it is as an aid in reading 
literature, has an equally obvious value in teaching composi- 
tion, oral and written. Something to say, something real, 
definite, interesting and detailed enough — this is the prereq- 
uisite to any profitable work in expression. One may get 
such material by reading and by being told. But he will get 
it still better if he can also see. The details in a picture or 
in a series of pictures on the same theme, the companion or 
contrast of scenes and actions, such assignments make ex- 
cellent composition lessons. A friendly rivalry among the 
members of the class, to see which could find the most in a 
given picture, or to see which could recall the most pictures 
of a given sort, or to see which, in the judgment of his class- 
mates, could give the best account of a picture, — such a con- 
test would also be an excellent basis for a lesson in language. 

The teacher will get the best results from these pictures: 
1. If she learns to know the whole scenes so well herself 
that any opportunity of using them will come to her mind 
automatically. 2. If she makes a point of having the ap- 
propriate picture seen by the class, either through the stereo- 
scope or on the screen while the interest is fresh. 3. If she 
encourages the habitual resort to the series by the pupils, 
just as she would encourage " browsing " in the library. 



17. LITERARY SUBJECTS AND SETTINGS 

By FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, Ph.D., Litt.D. 

PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

A little inquiry into the exact nature of the images in chil- 
dren's minds will usually yield some startling discoveries. We 
shall be amazed not only at what isn't there, but at what is 
there in mistaken form. There is not only so much that they 
do not know, but they know so much that isn't so. Of course, 
we realize when we come to think it over, that it couldn't be 
otherwise. Their experience is limited, much of it is second- 
hand and faint or inaccurate in the impression it leaves, and 
they have had as yet but a short period for correcting their 
impressions either by reflection or by checking them up through 
further impressions. 

In teaching literature we find constant need of helping the 
children to fill in and correct the images that are commonly re- 
ferred to in the poems and stories they read. We must be 
careful about what we take for granted. How many children 
there are who have never seen the ocean, or a mountain, or a 
forest, or a great city! How very few who have any image 
of the Parthenon, or Westminster Abbey, or Notre Dame! 
How few who have any lively conception of any kind of life 
outside their immediate environment ! 

One of the values of literature is that it does enlarge the 
bounds of our minds through vicarious experience. But for 
many experiences the literature alone is not enough. Pictures 
are needed to help us build up the images. Through pictures 
and poems and stories of the sea, an inland boy often gets so 
good an idea of the sea that when he comes to it for the first 
time, he finds it just as he expected it to look. And if he never 
sees it, he may yet have some notion of what it is like. 

The 600 pictures in this series have, quite properly, been se- 
lected mainly for their geographical value. Few of them are 

240 



LITERARY SUBJECTS 241 

only literary in their interest. But yet, as will be seen from 
the selections that follow, a very large number of them may 
help in explaining references and pictures in literature and in 
making it interesting. 

The teacher must use her own judgment as to the plan of 
using them. Sometimes it may be best to show the pictures 
before the reading, sometimes after it. She will need to dis- 
criminate between what explains, as for example, the Poca- 
hontas picture, or the Turpentine Gathering, and what merely 
adds interest and reality as, for example, The Old North 
Church and Washington's Home. The former kind might be 
shown before the reading, the latter after it. 

The best use of these views is probably that made by the 
pupils on their own initiative. If the pictures stand in the 
room, free to the pupils in their free hours, they will go to 
them again and again, and come to know them in the thorough 
way that is possible only through repeated use. 

HIAWATHA — A SAMPLE LESSON 

The lesson is on Hiawatha's Childhood, beginning — 

" By the shores of Gitchee-Gumee, 
By the shining Big-Sea-Water," 

and ending with the line, 

" Called them Hiawatha's Brothers." 

INTRODUCTION BY THE TEACHER 

This introduction will explain briefly and clearly that Hiawatha was 
the hero of an Indian tribe on the shores of Lake Superior (pointed to 
on a map), which the Indians called Gitche-Gumee, meaning Big-Sea- 
Water ; that Hiawatha was good and wise, and learned many things 
that helped his tribe — to catch fish, to make a canoe, to write letters by 
pictures, to grow corn, etc. 

He lived in a wigwam. What is a wigwam? Here let the children 
see picture 263. Tell them that these Indians are looking out over the 
St. Lawrence River, but they may make-believe it is Lake Superior. 
Don't hurry them. Lead them to see what the Indians there are doing, 

— weaving baskets. A little exchange of experience about Indian wares 

— not too long drawn out — will be very helpful. 

The class may now read the first ten lines. What parts of the lines 
were shown in the nicture? Were the pine trees and the firs shown? 

Read the next twelve lines. Do they see the babe in his cradle? 
Have they ever seen a cradle? An Indian baby's cradle? Now show 
picture 158. Do they note that it is at the base of a huge tree? 



242 ENGLISH 

(The song, The Naked Bear, has been printed by several people. A 
version simplified for schools may be had by writing to The Macmillan 
Co. — The Little Owlet song is issued by several music publishers.) 

Read the next twelve lines. Wbo has seen a comet? Show picture 
600. Wouldn't it be likely to set these simple-minded folk wondering? 

" Warriors with their plumes and war-clubs." What did Indian war- 
riors look like? Show pictures 168 and 182. 

Explain the reference to the " northern lights." 

As the rest of the lesson is read, explain such things as the speaking 
of the water and the pine tree, etc. 

The line " How the beavers built their lodges," will naturally call 
out picture 196, and the reference to the reindeer picture 413, Monda- 
min 184. Picture 169 presents an interesting scene. 

Such reinforcement of the intuitive basis must not, however, be al- 
lowed to smother the main idea of the selection : Hiawatha learning 
the secrets of nature from his old grandmother, Nokomis. 

ANTI-SLAVERY POEMS 

101 Harpers Ferry, "John Brown's body lies a-moldering in the 

grave." 
109 Old slave market. 
105, 107, 117, 118, 119 Types of negroes. 
570, 572, 578 Negroes in Africa. 

BIBLICAL SCENES 

491 Tarsus, the city from which Paul came. 
493 Damascus, said to be the oldest city in the world. The 
Bible refers often to life " on the house tops." 

495 Jerusalem, from the Mount of Olives. In many ways, an- 

cient Jerusalem looked the same as this. 

496 The Road to Jericho, where the Good Samaritan found the 

man who had fallen among thieves. 

497 The old Hebrew law forbade the muzzling of an ox while 

threshing. 

498 " Two women shall be grinding corn. The one shall be 

taken, the other left." 
561 to 565 " Out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage." 
No doubt Moses saw things very like these. 

WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT 

30 The Crowded Street. 

1, 162, 195, 224, 229 The Forest Hymn. 

2, 72, 102, 198 The Gladness of Nature. 
44, 175 The Planting of the Apple Tree. 

2, 195, to 197, 228. Thanatopsis. 



LITERARY SUBJECTS 243 



444, 599, 600 Hymn to the North Star. 
221 Upon the Mountain's Distant Head. 

ROBERT BURNS 

366 " A Man's a Man for A' That." 

367 Bannockburn. 

368 " Scots What Hae wi' Wallace Bled." 

372, 373 The Cotter's Saturday Night. The Brigs of Ayr. 
My Heart 's in the Highlands. Auld Lang Syne. 

JOHN BURROUGHS 
175, 44 The Apple. 

72, 359 Tragedies of the Nests. 
1 A Taste of Maine Birch. 

LORD BYRON 
The Siege of Corinth 
477 Excavators at work at Old Corinth. 

Childe Harold's Pilgrimage 

450 Rome, The Eternal City (canto IV, stanza 78). 

451 The Tiber (canto IV, stanza 79). 

452 Coliseum, the King of Ruins (canto IV, stanzas 128, 145). 
457 The Grand Canal, Venice, Italy (canto IV, stanza 1). 
475 Athens and the Acropolis (canto II). 

MARY MAPES DODGE 
Hans Brinker 

399 Streets in Amsterdam, Holland. 

400 On the Leuvehaven, Rotterdam. 
402 Scene in a Dutch village. 

EDWARD EGGLESTON 
Stories of American Life and Adventure 

98 A white man among the Indians. 
169 The making of a canoe. 

136, 137, 160, 184, 292 Some things about Indian corn. 
530, 534 Tea; 302, 310, 311 Coffee. The coming of tea and coffee. 
415 Stories of whaling. 

49, 50 A story of Niagara. 
182 A prisoner among Indians. 
208 Descending the Grand Canyon. 
232 Buffalo. The lazy lucky Indian. 
243 to 246 Adventures in Alaska. 



244 ENGLISH 

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE 
Niagara Falls 

49 Summer view of the Falls. 

50 Winter view of the Falls. 

WASHINGTON IRVING 
Sketch Book 
350 Westminster Abbey. 
38 Hudson River Valley. What Rip Van Winkle saw when he 
woke from his long sleep. 

51 The Palisades of the Hudson, looking north. 

36 The cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, near Tarrytown, N. Y. 
Irving is buried here. 

Stories from the Alhambra. 

436 Exterior of Alhambra Palace. 

Astoria 

226 Columbia River, Ore. 

HELEN HUNT JACKSON 
Ramona 
241 San Gabriel Mission, California. 

RUDYARD KIPLING 
Captains Courageous 

52 An ocean liner such as Harvey started on. 

13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. 

Just So Stories 
577 How the Rhinoceros Got His Skin. 
588 Old Man Kangaroo. 
505, 509 The Elephant's Child. (110 An alligator is very like a 

crocodile.) 
565 How the Camel Got His Hump. 

Moti Guy, Mutineer; and Toomai of the Elephants 

505 Elephants on parade. 
509 Elephants at work. 

Kim 

499 to 508 India, its life described by Kim. 

LUCY LARCOM 
Hanna Binding Shoes 

41 Shoe factory. Lucy Larcom herself worked in a shoe factory 
in Lowell, Mass. 



LITERARY SUBJECTS 245 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

113 Lincoln's birthplace, Hodgeville, Ky. 
73 Gettysburg Oration. 
87 Inaugural Address. 

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW 

9 Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. In this old house stood 
" The Old Clock on the Stair." 

Paul Revere's Ride 

6 Old North Church, Boston, where the signal light was hung. 

7 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, where Paul Revere 

often attended meetings. 
10 Lexington, Mass. The minute men roused by Paul Revere 
fought the Battle of Lexington. 

Evangeline 

262 " In the Acadian Land, on the shore of the Basin of Minas." 

Nova Scotia, Canada. 

Courtship of Miles Standish 

409 Spinning wheel such as Priscilla used. 

The Ropewalk 

553 Manila hemp industry. 

Hiawatha 

158 The Indian infant. 

168 Indians receiving guests. 

169 Indian man and girl in canoe. 

263 Indians weaving baskets. 
184 The feast of Mondamin. 
189 Hiawatha hunting. 

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL 
Vision of Sir Launfal 
102, 38 "And what is so rare as a day in June?" 
428, 448 " Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak, 
From the snow five thousand summers old." 

PATRIOTIC LITERATURE 

10 Monument to Minute Men, Lexington. 



246 ENGLISH 

80 Old Liberty Bell, Philadelphia. 

8/ The Capitol, Washington. 

91 The White House, Washington. 

90 Washington's home, Mount Vernon. 

242 Submarines, battleships, torpedo boats, San Diego, Cal. 

Zo4 the battleship Missouri. 

lUU Battleships at Hampton Roads. 

MRS. NORTON 
Bingen on the Rhine 
391 The Rhine Valley at Bingen. (Bishop Hatto's Tower, by 
Southey, and Longfellow's Children's Hour will be remem- 
bered here.) 

WILLIAM PRESCOTT 



331 The Incas. 



Conquest of Peru 



Conquest of Mexico 

282 to 285, 288 The Aztecs. 

ROOSEVELT AND LODGE 

Hero Tales from American History 

96, 9, 37, 29 Washington, by H. C. Lodge. 
119, 120 Battle of New Orleans, T. Roosevelt. 
126 Remember the Alamo, T. Roosevelt. 
100 Hampton Roads, T. Roosevelt. 

73 Charge at Gettysburg, T. Roosevelt. 
113, 73, 91 Lincoln, H. C. Lodge. 

WALTER SCOTT 

The Lady of the Lake and other stories of Scotland. 

365 The famous monument to Scott, on Princess St., Edinburgh 

(pronounced Ed-in-bur-ro). 

366 Highlanders in costume; as described in The Lady of the 

Lake. 

367 Stirling Castle. The residence of the Kings of Scotland ; men- 

tioned in The Lady of the Lake, canto VI, st. XXVIII. 
369 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine. In the Trossachs (or "bristled 
country") near Edinburgh. Made famous by The Lady 
of the Lake. 

The Talisman 

495 Jerusalem, to regain which city the Crusades were made. 

496 The Jericho Road often traveled by Crusaders. 
497,498 Scenes in Palestine. 

494 A Sheik showing dress of the Saracen. 



LITERARY SUBJECTS 247 

Kenilworth 

348 London Bridge. 

352 The House of Lords, London, Eng. 

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE 

354 His birthplace, Stratford. 

355 Anne Hathaway's cottage. 

356 Memorial theater in Shakespeare's honor at Stratford. 
382 Sea Dirge. 

SAMUEL FRANCIS SMITH 

America 

See classification on Reading. 

1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 25, 38, 61, 71, 72, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 110, 117, 127, 
178, 182, 188, 190, 198, 207, 208, 215, 221, 224, 242. " My Coun- 
try 'tis of thee." Let children see that all the country, far and 
wide with its diversified life is " my country." 
51, 197, 228 "I love thy rocks and rills." 

1, 102, 224, 229 "Thy woods and templed hills." 
51, 207, 228 "Let rocks their silence break." 

ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON 
Inland Voyage 

396 A scene on the streets of Antwerp. From the docks of this 

city Stevenson and his friend set off in their canoes for 
their trip through Belgium into France. 

397 The river Meuse and Namur have been made by the war 

almost as famous as Antwerp. 

ALFRED TENNYSON 

The Brook 

363 A wooded glen in Wales. 

J. T. TROWBRIDGE 
138, 159, 165 Farmyard Song. 

CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER 

Being a Boy 

130 The sugar camp. 

STORIES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON 

96 Washington's home. Stories of his home life. 
61 Confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Story 
of Fort Necessity and Braddock's defeat. 



248 ENGLISH 

9 Longfellow's home. Washington taking charge of the American 

army at Boston. 
37 Washington's headquarters at Newburg. Washington's refusal 

to think of being a king and his farewell to his army. 
29 Wall St. Washington as President. 

JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER 
The Corn Song and The Huskers 
184 The corn that Whittier knew was the shorter kind grown in 
New England. 

136 " There wrought the busy harvesters." 

The Pumpkin 

137 " O, fruit loved of boyhood." 

The Barefoot Boy 

488 " Barefoot boy with cheek of tan." 

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 

361 Lake Grasmere and village. Wordsworth's home during 

his early residence in the Lake District. 

362 Rydal Mount, the later residence of Wordsworth 
359 The Nightingale. 

SPYRI 
Heidi 
445 A Swiss cottage in the Alps. The one in which Heidi and 
her grandfather lived was humbler and smaller than this. 
441 On the top of a mountain. 
444 A Swiss valley. 

447 A Swiss village. 

448 A famous Swiss mountain peak. 

449 Some Swiss roads. 

MISCELLANEOUS 
342, 346 Among the Icebergs, Dana. 
452 Androclus and the Lion. 

494 The Arab's Farewell to His Steed, Caroline E. S. Norton. 
484 The Bells, Edgar Allan Poe. 

375 The Bells of Shandon, Francis Sylvester Mahony. 
450, 452 Ben Hur. Gen. Lew Wallace. 
73 Gettysburg. 114 Lookout Mt. The Blue and the Gray. 
Frances M. French. 
243, 246 The Call of the Wild, Jack London. 
513, 515, 519 Chinese Stories such as The Poet Li or Woo of 

Hwangho. 
38, 451 The Cloud, Percy Bysshe Shelley. 



LITERARY SUBJECTS 249 

99 The Coast Guard, Emily Huntingdon Miller. 

27 Crossing Brooklyn Ferry, Walt Whitman. 

415 The Cruise of the Cachalot, Bullen. 

98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 244 Customs of American In- 
dians, Lewis and Clark. 

359 Don't Kill the Birds. Colesworthy. 

282, 369, 38, 39 Great, Wide, Beautiful, Wonderful World. 

264, 265, 266 The Heights of Abraham, Parkman. 

451 Horatius at the Bridge, Macaulay. 

10, 130 How the Leaves Came Down, Susan Coolidge. 

98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 244, 263, 265, 328 Indian folk stories. 

50 Jack Frost, Miss Gould. 

71 Lake Erie and Commodore Perry. 

32 The Making of an American, Jacob Riis. 

88, 242, 260 The Name of Old Glory, James Whitcomb Rilev. 

359 Ode to the Nightingale, Keats. 

241 San Gabriel Mission, The Angelus, Bret Harte. 

246 Stickeen, A Dog Story, John Muir. 

264, 39 Story of Benedict Arnold. 

98 Story of Pocahontas. 

441, 444, 445, 446 to 448 Tell, to His Native Mountains. 

10 The Tree, Bjornson. 

415 Two Years Before the Mast, Dana. 

415 The Typee, Melville. 

109, 117, 119 Uncle Tom's Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

137 When the Frost is on the Pun'kin, James W. Riley. 

71, 10, 224 Woodman, Spare that Tree. 

178, 179, 72 Work, Cary. 

SONGS 

366 The Bluebells of Scotland. 
117 Dixie Land, D. Emmett. 
38, 373 Home Sweet Home, John Howard Payne. 

347 to 361 Isle of Beauty, T. H. Bayly. 
495 Jerusalem, Bishop Reginald Heber. 
377 Killarney, J. W. Balfe. 

348 London Bridge, F. E. Weatherby. 
429 Marseillaise, Roget de L'Isle. 

382 The Song of the Sea, B. W. Procter. 

88, 242, 260 The Star Spangled Banner, Frances Scott Key. 
391, 392 The Watch on the Rhine, Max Schneckenburger. 



18. ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

By JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, Ph.M. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN CHARGE OF EXTRA- 
MURAL COURSES, TEACHERS, COLLEGE, COLUMBIA J 
EDITOR OF "ENGLISH JOURNAL" AND "JOURNAL 
OF EDUCATIONAL METHODS" 

Success in teaching- children to speak and write English 
depends chiefly upon two things, good sense in assignments 
and emphasis upon one difficulty of form at a time. A proper 
assignment arouses in the pupil a desire either to entertain, 
inform, or persuade the members of his class and to gather to- 
gether the material for the chosen purpose. 

It is here that stereographs and lantern slides are found dis- 
tinctly helpful. They visualize the topic, they suggest possi- 
bilities, provide material, and open the way to investigation. 
Not only so; they also assist the young speaker in presenting 
his ideas by providing a focus of attention and by illustrating 
his points. Most important perhaps is the arousing of the 
pupil's interest so that he puts his energies into the work. The 
principal of a large city school was addressing a group of 
teachers in a neighboring city on the topic of visualizing school 
work. Being asked what influence his Keystone Set of stereo- 
graphs and slides had on his dull pupils, he replied that after 
he had used the set he had no dull pupils. He stated that the 
so-called dull pupil was usually one who lacked interest in his 
work or who had difficulty in getting knowledge from the 
printed page. The stereographs aroused an intense interest 
and the picture gave him the facts quickly. Having some- 
thing definite to tell, he was just as eager to tell it as were the 
others. 

In using the " 600 Set " to assist his class to grow in power 
of English expression, the teacher should bear in mind that 
composition is a process involved in all subjects, particularly 
in the study and class discussion of geography, history, and 
literature. To a considerable extent, therefore, his most ef- 
fective employment of the pictures for English work will con- 
sist in directing a fuller and more orderly presentation of ideas 

250 



COMPOSITION 251 

in those subjects than is commonly the practice. Particularly 
should he plan individual and group activities so that the 
pupil reciting or reading a paper may be actually telling his 
fellows something that they do not already know. 

For the composition class itself may be reserved topics 
lending themselves to more extended or more literary treat- 
ment than is suitable for the history or geography class, and 
particularly the composition class should provide for instruc- 
tion in making outlines, writing clear sentences, and similar 
matters of necessary technique. Often a study begun as geog- 
raphy may wisely be concluded as composition. In all classes 
oral errors should be judiciously corrected as made, though 
not at the .sacrifice of the train of thought being followed, the 
aim being to train the pupils in habits of correct English. 

The usual classification of composition topics according to 
the forms of rhetoric is worse than useless for purposes of 
elementary composition. Children cannot speak or write ef- 
fectively when burdened with the consciousness of a form to 
be illustrated. What they need is consciousness of a real au- 
dience and of something definite which they wish to do for 
that audience. Hence the suggestions which follow have been 
grouped as a series of possibilities for interesting class work. 
Many other possibilities will readily suggest themselves to any- 
one who begins to follow out those here put down. -There 
should be no attempt to develop organization in a series of 
written paragraphs below the fifth grade. 

GIVING ACCURATE INFORMATION 
Obviously a large number of the scenes convey geographical or 
other information. To put this into words requires care as to clear- 
ness, accuracy and sequence. If only the stereographs are available, 
each child may be made responsible for a brief oral explanation of a 
scene, drawing his material from the description on the back and, if 
possible, from other sources. In the higher classes the best results 
will come from having each pupil, or a group of pupils, gather a fund 
of information on a subject illustrated by one or more of the stereo- 
graphs and then present it at length, either by reading from a paper or 
talking from an outline. 

In case lantern slides are at hand, the pupil may speak or read 
while the picture is thrown upon the screen. His classmates should 
be encouraged to ask him questions. 

Among the stereographs and slides most useful for informational 
talks or papers are the following: 



252 ENGLISH 



Agriculture 

108 Harvesting Indian River Pineapples, Fla. 

136 Modern methods of harvesting corn, Indiana. 

178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor, S. Dak. 

181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader, Neb. 

Animals 

2 Wild moose in a Maine torest. 

72 A woodcock on nest. 

110 Alligator Joe's battle with a wounded alligator, Fla. 

509 Giant beasts of burden, Burma, India. 

512 Royal elephant hunt. 

Dairy Cattle 

159 Group of dairy barns and Holstein cattle. 
364 Jersey cattle. 

403 Dutch farm hands milking Holstein-Friesian cattle near Rotter- 
dam, Netherlands. 

Glaciers 

219 Crevasse, Paradise Glacier, Wash. 

274 Crevasse in Victoria Glacier, Canada. 

275 Illicillewaet Glacier, Canada. 

276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. 
342 Greenland. 

408 Buerbrae Glacier, Norway. 

427 Glacier des Bossons, Chamonix. 

428 Mer de Glace, Chamonix, France. 

446 Blowing the Alpine Home, Grindelwald, Switzerland. 
448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland. 

Harbors 

28 New York Harbor. 

106 Rosin on the Docks, Savannah. 

242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battle ships, San Diego Bay. 

313 Great dredge by which the harbor is made navigable, Montevideo, 

Uruguay. 

347 Landing stasre, Liverpool. 

556 Harbor of Algiers. 



History and Literature 
6 to 10 Boston, Mass. 
71 Wagons used to haul ammunition to Perry. 



COMPOSITION 253 

87 to 95 Washington. 
101 Harper's Ferry. 
369 Ellen's Isle. 

354 to 356 William Shakespeare. 
493 "The street called Straight," Damascus. 
524 The Great Wall, China. 
565 The Sphinx and Second Pyramid. 
567 Caravan leaving oasis, Egypt. 
358 An English breed of beef cattle. 

Interesting Sights 

49, 50 Niagara Falls. 
100 Ships in Hampton Roads. 

72 A woodcock on nest. 
415 Floating whale station, Spitzbergen. 
505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, Ind. 

Industries 

103 Burning charcoal, N. C. 
112 Tobacco field, Ky. 

443 The wood carver, Switzerland. 
523 Chinese sawing timbers. 
530 A country girl of old Japan. 

Irrigation 

104 Flooding the rice fields, South Carolina. 
210 The great Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 
209 The effects of irrigation, Arizona. 

528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 
569 The great dam, Assuan, Egypt. 

Lumbering 

215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Washington. 

216 Port Blakely Mills, Seattle, Wash. 

217 Shipping lumber, Wash. 

214 One of the great trees of the rainy northwest, Oregon. 

Manufacturing 

11 Cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 

12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, Mass. 
14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. 
21 Making jewelry, Providence, R. I. 

24 Spinning silk, Conn. 

62 to 68 Steel manufacturing, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
412 Grindstones making wood pulp. 



254 ENGLISH 

Mining 

70 Shooting an oil well, Pa. 

74 to 77 Coal mining, Pa. 

155 Copper mining, Mich. 

163 Iron mine, Minn. 

581 Diamond mine, South Africa. 

579 Gold Mine, South Africa. 

Stock Raising 

127 Making a drive on the Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 

185 Splendid Hereford cattle, Kansas. 

186 Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. 
385 An English breed of beef cattle. 

370 Aberdeen Angus, noted breed of beef cattle, Scotland. 

Transportation 

43 A busy path of commerce in central New York. 

61 The Ohio river at Pittsburgh, Pa. 

253 Gatun locks and Gatun Lake, Panama Canal. 

575 Cape to Cairo R. R., South Africa. 

580 Crossing the Vaal River, South Africa. 
449 Goods for the high Alps, Switzerland. 

Consider the possibility of orderly explanation of the processes 
shown in the following: 

Automobiles 

150 Assembling room, Cadillac Plant, Detroit, Mich. 

151 Experts testing machines, Cadillac Plant, Detroit, Mich. 

Bark Cloth 

570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 

Coal 

74 to 79 Coal mining in Pennsylvania. 
129 Train load of coal, Conneaut, Ohio. 

Coffee 

302 Coffee pickers at work, Guadeloupe, W. I. 

310 Drying coffee, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

311 Carts loaded with coffee, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 

Cotton 

117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 

124 Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 

125 Cotton gin, Greenville, Texas. 

119 Cotton on the levee, New Orleans, La. 
14 to 16 Views in textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. 



COMPOSITION 255 

Farm Machinery 

161 Reclaiming swamp land, Wisconsin. 

166 Potato digging machine, Wisconsin. 

178 Plowing with a tractor, S. Dakota. 

179 Making a good seed bed, S. Dakota. 

180 Manure spreader followed by. tractor plowing sod, Nebraska. 

181 Handling alfalfa hay, Nebraska. 

Silk 

536 to 539 Raising silkworms, Japan. 
540, 541 Silk manufacture, Japan. 

53 to 55 Silk manufacture, Paterson, N. J. 

22 to 24 Silk manufacture, So. Manchester, Conn. 

Wool 

190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 

17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Mass. 

18 Doubling frame in woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. 
81 Spinning room, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Iron and Steel 

62 to 67 Manufacturing iron and steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

COMPARATIVE AND GENERAL STUDIES 

Older pupils may occasionally bring together sets of scenes which 
present striking contrasts or suggest modest generalizations. Projects 
of this sort involve much more thinking than ordinary accounts of facts 
and require correspondingly more mature powers of expression. They 
are, of course, all the more educative for this reason. Note for ex- 
ample the following: 

Engineering Feats 

27 The great Brooklyn Bridge. 
174 The magnificent Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 
366 The great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 

170 Power dam in the Mississippi river, Keokuk, Iowa. 

171 Generators, Keokuk, Iowa. 
210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 

569 The great dam at Assuan, Egypt. 
250 to 256 The Panama Canal. 

How Machinery Helps 

14, 24, 81, Spinning. 

46 Automatic machine filling and capping milk bottles, N. Y. 
233 Combined harvester, Cal. 

128 Unloaders at work on ore docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 
144 Making sausage, Chicago, 111. 
161 Reclaiming swamp land, Wis. 



256 ENGLISH 

178 Plowing with tractor, S. Dak. 

179 Harrowing with tractor, S. Dak. 
272 Tanning, Canada. 

How People Travel 

31 Many forms of transportation in a large city, N. Y. 
43 Busy path of commerce in central New York. 

52 Steam ships, Hoboken, N. J. 

71 Prairie schooner, Pa. 

154 Canal traffic, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 

246 Dog team, Alaska. 

505 Elephants, India. 

567 Caravan leaving oasis. 

Nature's Wonders 

50 Niagara Falls in winter. 

72 A woodcock on nest — protective coloring. 
193, 194 Geysers, Yellowstone Park. 

231, 300 Earthquake fissures. 

201 Pikes Peak. 

202, 208 Canyons. 

229 A big tree. 

219, 274, 275, Glaciers. 

276 Mt. Sir Donald. 

453, 545, 548 Volcanoes. 

Our Great Cities 
6 to 8 Boston, Mass. 

25 to 32 New York City, N. Y. 

87 to 95 Washington, D. C. 
139, 140 Chicago, 111. 
264 to 266 Quebec, Canada. 
348 to 352 London, Eng. 
421 to 425 Paris, France. 
472 to 474 Constantinople, Turkey. 
513 Hong Kong, China. 

What Our Government Does for Us 

32 Ellis Island, N. Y. 

87 to 95 Washington, D. C. 
209, 210 Irrigation. 
191 to 197 National Park. 

STUDIES OF VOCATIONS 

It is now agreed that older children should learn a great deal about 
various occupations before the time comes to choose one. The "600 
Set " will enable the class to center attention upon each of the fol- 
lowing: 



COMPOSITION 257 

Dairying 

45 Washing 1000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, N. Y. 

46 Filling and capping milk bottles, N. Y. 
57 Milking, N. J. 

159 Dairy barns and herd, Wis. 

165 Holstein cattle, Minn. 

Engineering 

27 The great Brooklyn Bridge. 
170, 171 Power dam and generators, Keokuk, Iowa. 

174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 
209, 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 
248 to 256 Panama Canal. 

330 Cofa Bridge, Peru. 

569 The great dam, Assuan, Egypt. 

Farming 

47 Picking and loading cantaloupes, N. Y. 

137 " When the frost is on the pumpkin and the fodder's in the shock," 
Ind. 

166 Potato digging, Minn. 

178 Plowing, S. Dak. 

179 Harrowing, N. Dak. 

180 Manure spreader and tractor plowing, Neb. 
177 Threshing, N. Dak. 

199 Combined harvester, Col. 

104 Rice fields, S. C. 

112 Tobacco field, Ky. 

117 Picking cotton, Miss. 

Fruit Raising 

44 Spraying apple orchard, N. Y. 

85 Gathering peaches, Del. 

108 Pineapples, Fla. 

175 Picking, sorting and packing apples, Mo. 
236 Tokav grapes, Cal. 

237, 238 Oranges, Cal. 

Lumbering 

1 Loss from forest. Maine, 

162 Load of logs, Minn. 

215 Chained lo? rafts. Wash. 

216 Lareest lumber mill in the world, Wash. 

217 Shinmnsr lumber. Wash. 
224 A great tree, Ore. 

Manufacturing 
11, 12, 41 Shoe factory. 



258 ENGLISH 

• 

14 to 24 Textile mills. 

42 Salt. 

62 to 68 Iron and steel mills. 
124, 125 Cotton gin. 
1*1. to 133 Rubber works. 
134, 135 Glass works. 
150 to 153 Automobile factory. 

34, 35, 270, 271 Sugar industry. 
272 Tanning. 

Mining 

74 to 79 Coal in Pennsylvania. 
155 Copper, Michigan. 
163 Iron, Minnesota. 
214 Silver, Nevada. 
225 Gold, California. 
245, 246 Gold, Alaska. 

Oil 

69, 70 Boring wells, Pennsylvania. 
122, 123 Oil region, Texas. 

Stock Raising 

127 Making a drive on the Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 

138 Champion team of Percheron draft horses, Indiana. 

140 World s greatest stock market, Chicago. 

185 Hereford cattle, Kans. 

186 Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kans. 
188 Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, Montana. 

190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 

Truck Gardening and Marketing 

7 Quincy market, Boston, Mass. 

47 Picking and loading' cantalounes, N. Y. 

149 Celery blanched by boards. Mich. 

387 Market, Nuremburg, Germany. 

RECREATIONS 

People should play as well as work. The class will profit by com- 
paring the various ways of spending leisure shown in the stereographs ; 

Travel 

39 Looking up the Hudson River, N. Y. 

49, 50 Niagara Falls. N. Y. 

96, 97 Mt. Vernon, Va. 
102 Overlooking the Blue Ridge, N. C. 
114 View from Lookout Mt., Tenn. 

191 to 197 Yellowstone Park. 



COMPOSITION 259 

200 to 202 Rocky Mts., Col. 

206, 208 Colorado plateau and canyon, Ariz. 

221 to 226 Oregon mountains and Columbia River. 

228, 229 Yosemite Valley. 

274 to 276 The Canadian Rockies. 

354, 355, 356 Places connected with Shakespeare. 

440 to 449 The Alps and Switzerland. 

508 The Roof of the World, the Himalayas, India. 

Mountain Climbing 

219 Crevasse on Mt. Ranier, Wash. 

275 Among ice peaks on Illecillewait Glacier, Canada. 

276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. 
440 Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 

Seaside Resorts 

60 In the surf, Atlantic City. 
430 Cannes, France. 

Parades 

266 Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal, Can. 
505 Stately elephants on parade, India. 

A Pageant 

265 Tercentenary pageant, Quebec, Can. 

98 Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith, Va. 
158, 168, 169 Hiawatha. 

Dancing and Music 

290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls. 
261 Pretty Hula girls, Hawaii. 

Hunting 

577, 578 An hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, S. Africa. 

Drinking Tea 

373 A highland home. Scotland. 

534 In the land of flowers, Japan. 

In a Garden 

535 Where little Japanese maids delight to stroll. 

DISCUSSION 

Several of the scenes suggest topics about which people hold different 
opinions. By using stereographs or slides, class conversations may 
easily be developed into orderly oral discussions, with speakers on each 
side; for example — 



260 ENGLISH 

Which Is the Most Valuable Mineral? 

76, 77, 129 Coal. 
163, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 27 Iron. 
155, 156 Copper. 
225 Gold. 
214 Silver. 

Which Is the Most Valuable Crop in the United States? 
In tHe World? 

218 Wheat. 

147 Oats. 

184 Corn. 

117 Cotton. 

105, 529, 550 Rice. 



Which Is the Most Valuable Vegetable? 



166 Potatoes. 

198 Beets. 

469 Onions. 

118 Peanuts. 

59 Celery. 



Which Is the Most Valuable Fruit? 



85 Peaches. 

44, 175 Apples. 
108 Pineapples. 
237, 238 Oranges. 

47 Cantaloupes. 
294 Bananas. 
236, 390 Grapes. 

Which Is the Most Valuable Fighting Machine? 

100 Battleship. 
242 Submarine. 
394 Zeppelin. 

Which Is the Strongest Building Material? Most Useful? 
Most Valuable? 

216 Wood. 

210 Stone. 

253 Concrete. 

3 Granite. 

4 Marble. 
62 Iron. 
66 Steel. 



COMPOSITION 261 

Which Feeds the Most People in the U. S.? In the World? 

233 Wheat. 

136 Corn. 

550 Rice. 

166 Potatoes. 

Which Is the Most Valuable Animal to Man? 



159 


Cow. 




183 


Hog. 




190 


Sheep. 




138 


Horse. 




124 


Mule. 




246 


Dog. 




509 


Elephant. 




564 


Camel. 




411 


Goat. 




413 


Reindeer. 




56 


Chicken. 






Which Fiber 


Is Most Useful for Clothing? 


117 


Cotton. 




269 


Linen. 




22 


Silk. 




17 


Wool. 





Which Canal Carries the Most Traffic? Cost the Most? Most 
Valuable to the U. S.? Most Valuable to the World? 

247 to 256 Panama Canal. 
559 Suez Canal. 
154 "Soo" Canal. 

Have the Indians Been Badly Treated? 

98 Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith, Va. 

182 Mounted Sioux Indians. 

204 Ute Indian and family. 

211 Pueblo of Taos Indians. 

Where Is the Best Place to Live, Country, Village, City? 

38 A charming landscape, Hudson Valley. 

96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon. 
181 Farm of William J. Bryan. 
262 " On the shores of the Basin of Minas," Can. 

25 to 31 New York City. 

THE STORY OF IT 

Some pictures at once suggest a story, anecdote, or historical ac- 
count. Let the pupils vie with each other in holding the interest of 
the class by their narratives in the case of the following: 



262 ENGLISH 

6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. 

48 Erie Canal, N. Y. 

72 A woodcock on nest, Pa. 

80 Liberty Bell, Philadelphia, Pa. 

98 Pocahontas. 

126 The Alamo. 

296 Battleship Maine. 

342 Perry expedition. 

346 Roald Amundsen. 

235 Luther Burbank. 

451 St. Peter's Cathedral. 

452 Coliseum. 
466 Sarajevo. 
564 Nile. 

567 Caravan. 

PUTTING YOUR READER THERE 

Making another see and feel what he would see and feel if he were 
present at a certain place at a certain time, is not easy, especially if 
you depend upon words. Nevertheless, the pupils will enjoy trying to 
picture a few of the scenes. Warn them to use concrete specific words. 

186 Roping a cow. 

189 Wild elk. 

276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. 

243 Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. 

245 Placer Mining, Alaska. 

354, 356 Stratford on Avon, England. 

390, to 392 The River Rhine, Germany. 

525 Fujiyama, Japan. 

444, 445, 446, 448 Switzerland. 

484 Bell market Nizhni Novgorod. 

505 Indian princes on parade. 

510 Elephant hunt. 

577, 578 Hippopotamus hunt. 

581 Diamond Mine. 

"HIKING" REPORTS 

Oral or written reports of scenes visited, observation made, and ex- 
periences enjoyed on "hikes" offer a splendid basis for English com- 
position. These stereoscopic views are so vividly real that in studying 
them one may well feel himself a part of the scene. He can thus write 
on the story of the "hike" with all the reality of the actual visit. 
For definite selections for this purpose see topic of Hikes in classifica- 
tion on Outdoor Life. 

BUSINESS LETTERS 

The Keystone " 600 Set " provides scenes which suggest 
business activities in practically every phase of life in all parts 



BUSINESS LETTERS 263 

of the world. The thoughtful study of the stereograph by the 
pupil arouses interest, and stimulates his imagination to deal 
with the subject as though it were a real experience. The ac- 
companying text supplies the necessary facts. The sugges- 
tions herewith given call for letters which direct thought into 
channels of practical application and at the same time furnish 
the basis for an excellent drill in the use of correct English. 

28 World Building. Write a letter enclosing a check or money order 
for a year's subscription to the New York World. 

79 Shipping coal. Write an anthracite coal company in Ashley, Pa., 
and order a carload of anthracite coal (chestnut) to be sent to 
you in August. 

52 Great ocean liners. Write to a steamship company at Hoboken, 
N. J., and ask for a position as wireless operator on one of their 
boats. State age, qualifications, experience. 

47 Loading cantaloupes. A boy's father gave him a piece of land 
upon which he raised Rocky Ford muskmelons. He sold 50 
boxes of the fruit fresh and of standard size to a commission 
merchant in Pittsburgh, Pa. Write the letter in which he of- 
fered the fruit for sale. 

56, 1500 Hens. Write to the Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, New 
Jersey, enclosing one and one quarter dollars, for a setting of 
selected eggs. 
Write to the Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, N. J., and order 
100 dozen eggs at fifty cents a dozen. Enclose check. 

45 1000 lbs. of butter. Offer to some wholesale dealer in Buffalo, 
N. Y., this 1000 lbs of butter .'reshly churned from sweet cream. 
Tell that it will be done up in waxed paper, in cardboard boxes, 
each box containing one pound. 

55 Weaving silk ribbons. Order from Marshall Field Co. (view 139) 
five yards of ribbon like enclosed sample. Also enclose check 
or money order. 

11 Shoe factory. Write to the Lynn Shoe Co., Lynn, Mass., and say 
that you are a skilled shoe cutter, and ask if they have any 
places open in their leather cutting department. 

38, 39 Along Hudson River. Write to a Hudson River Steamboat 
Co. for rates from New York City to Albany. Ask for illus- 
trated booklet and enclose stamps. 

44 Spraying in apple orchard. Write to the Agricultural Department, 
Washington, D. C, and ask what is best to use for spraying 
apple trees in the summer time. 
Send a sample of a diseased apple tree to your state agricultural 
department. Ask what is the matter and what you caw do for it. 
Write to a farmer you know saying that you have gone into the 
business of caring for orchards and would like to spray and 
trim his trees. 

58 Firing tableware, Trenton. Write to a pottery company in Tren- 
ton, N. J., and tell them that you received their letter of the 



264 ENGLISH 

10th of last month saying that the goods had been shipped. 
Tell them that the shipment has not reached you aYid ask them 
if they will try to trace it. 

60 In the surf, Atlantic City. Write to the proprietor of a great 
hotel in Atlantic City to reserve for you two rooms with 
baths, for the second week in July. You want rooms overlook- 
ing the sea. 

69, 70 Oil well. Write to an oil driller living in Oil City, Pa., and 
ask him what will be the earliest time when he can drill on 
your farm 10 miles north of Oil City. 
2 Wild moose. Write a letter to a guide in Moosehead, Me., 
asking him about arrangements and expenses for a two weeks' 
hunting trip through Maine woods. You wish to hunt in No- 
vember. 

82 Baldwin Locomotive Works. Write a letter to yourself from the 
general superintendent of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, ask- 
ing you to call at his office as soon as possible. 

85 Gathering peaches. Write to a man in Woodside, Del. Ask 
him if he will have any peaches like those he sold you last 
year and if so, how many. 

88 Joint session Congress. Write to your congressman asking for 
some government seeds. 

90 View from State Building. Write to the State Department, Wash- 
ington, D. C, giving your age, stating that you are a natural- 
born citizen of the United States, that you wish to go to South 
America, and asking for a passport. 

21 Manufacturing jewelry. Write to a jewelry firm in Providence, 
R. I., asking for designs and prices for class rings. The rings 
are to bear the initials of your school and the year when you 
graduate. 

25, 30 New York. Write to a great hotel in New York City asking 
to have reserved for you an outside room with bath. Give time 
when you will arrive and leave. 
115. Mining phosphate. Order a carload of phosphate from Colum- 
bia, Tenn. 
118 Harvesting peanuts. Your father gave you 100 lbs. of peanuts. 
Write a letter to a firm in Little Rock, Ark., offering them for 
sale. 
127, 186 Paloduro and Geneseo ranches. Write to some man on the 
Paloduro Ranch, Palodura, Tex., and offer him a place as 
superintendent of your ranch at Geneseo, Kan. 

130 Tapping maple tree. Offer a commission firm in Cincinnati 150 
gallons of maple syrup. Say that it was made from the first 
run of sap, is of standard weight and of the finest quality, put 
up in gallon tin cans and that your price is $1.50 per gallon. 
Order the syrup to be sent to you by freight. Enclose a check 
for the amount. 



BUSINESS LETTERS 265 

132 Goodrich rubber factory. Ask for a position as bookkeeper in 

the Goodrich Rubber Co., Akron, O. 
138 Percheron draft horses. Write a very nice note requesting some 

one to pay you the remaining $125.00 which he still owes on 

the team of Percheron draft horses which he purchased from 

you on June 12 of last year. 
Write the answer to the above letter. 
142, 144 Packing house scenes. Order from Swift & Co., Chicago, 

111., 500 lbs. of fresh sausage and 1000 lbs. of lard. 
143 Trimming hams. Order from Armour & Co., Chicago, 111., 500 

lbs. ham and eight hind quarters of prime western beef. 

150 Assembling room, automobile plant. Write a note to a man you 

know asking him to set a time when you may call and show him 
an automobile you are selling. 

151 Cadillac automobile plant. Send a note to the Cadillac agent in 

your town telling him that your new machine is not acting right 

and ask if he will send a man to attend to it. 
166 Digging potatoes. Write to a firm in Minneapolis describing 200 

bushels of potatoes and offering them for sale. They are large, 

smooth, of the Early Ohio variety. 
172 Hogs in rape pasture. Your father promised you half the money 

obtained from the hogs on the farm. Write to the agricultural 

department of your state for information concerning the raising 

of hogs. 
Write to your state experiment station for bulletins on same 

topic. 
175 Picking apples. This boy has ten barrels of apples as his own. 

Write to a commission house in Chicago describing variety, 

method of growing, picking, sorting and packing. 
178, 179 Tractors in operation. Write to your agent in Watertown, 

S. Dak., telling him that at the beginning of the next month the 

price of all tractors will advance 5%. 

180 Case tractor. Write to Case Tractor Co., Chicago, 111., for 

catalogues. 

181 Case tractor. Write to Case Tractor Co., Chicago, 111., saying 

wheel on tractor broke and you are sending it to be repaired 
or replaced. 

184 Corn field, Kansas. Write to a real estate firm in Atchison, Kan- 
sas, asking if they know of a good farm for sale. You wish a 
good grain farm. 

184, 136 Corn fields. Write to the director of your corn club saying 
that you planted one acre of corn, doing the plowing, harrow- 
ing, planting, cultivating and harvesting yourself without help. 
Also state that your yield is 125 bushels of shelled corn. 

190 Sheep on range. Offer Cudahy & Co., Omaha, 10,000 sheep de- 

livered at railroad in Grangersville, Ida., Sept. 1. 

191 Yellowstone National Park. Write to Superintendent of Yellow- 

stone Park for trip books. 



266 ENGLISH 

198 Cultivating sugar beets. Write to a beet sugar company in 

Greeley, Col., asking prices per ton for raw sugar. 

199 Colorado barley field. Write to your agent in Fort Collins, Col., 

asking bim to buy and ship to you in Chicago, all the barley that 
he can get up to 100,000 bu. 

220 Seattle. Write to Traffic Manager of the Northern Pacific 
R. R., Chicago, 111., asking for information concerning a trip 
to Alaska. 

234 Harvesting almonds. Write to a commission merchant in San 
Francisco offering 20 sacks of large, thin-shelled almonds for sale. 

236 238 Orange trees. Order from a firm in Los Angeles 100 boxes 
of navel oranges and 50 barrels of Tokay grapes. 

239 Cawston ostrich farm. Order four natural ostrich feathers at 
three dollars each from the Cawston Ostrich Farm, Cal. En- 
close check or money order. 

264, 265 Quebec; 267 Montreal. Write to Canada steamship lines, 
enclosing 2c postage for map and guide for trip down St. Law- 
rence River from Niagara to Quebec. 

289 Sisal hemp field. Write to your agent in Merida, Yucatan, telling 
him to buy and ship to you 1000 lbs. of sisal hemp fiber. 

310, 311 Sao Paulo coffee scenes. Write to the American Consul in 
Sao Paulo asking information as to coffee crop, prices, etc. 

314 to 321 Argentine views. Write to the President of the Pan- 
American Union, Washington, D. C, asking for pamphlets giv- 
ing information concerning Argentine. 

546 to 551 Philippine views. Write to the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, Washington, D. C, asking for a position as teacher in the 
Philippines. Give your qualifications and experience. 



AGRICULTURE 

INTRODUCTION 

By CHARLES F. CURTISS, M.S.A., D.S. 

DEAN DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERI- 
MENT STATION, IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA. 

" At the head of all the sciences and arts, at the head of civilization 
and progress, stands — not militarism, the science that kills, not com- 
merce, the art that accumulates wealth — but agriculture, the mother 
of all industry and the maintainer of human life." 

Never before in the history of the world has so much de- 
pended upon intelligent, efficient, and well conducted agricul- 
ture. The great International war has not only brought about 
a marked shortage of food stuffs which is world-wide in its 
scope, but the determination of the outcome and results of the 
war promise to depend quite as much on the industrial forces 
as upon military achievement. Chief among the industrial 
forces of all of the great nations are those relating to the pro- 
duction of food and clothing. Agriculture has taken on a new 
significance throughout the world in recent years. Improved 
machinery, motive power and transportation facilities have tre- 
mendously increased production and widened the market for 
agricultural products. One hundred years ago it was neces- 
sary, under conditions then existing in the United States, for 
about ninety per cent of all of the population to engage in 
agricultural occupations in order to maintain a production 
that would meet the needs of the country and sustain the 
population. Even as late as fifty years ago, about two-thirds 
of the population of the United States was engaged in agri- 
cultural pursuits. Today, scarcely more than one-third of our 
population is engaged in farming and, notwithstanding this 
marked change and the tremendous increase of city popula- 
tion, agricultural production has made great advance and the 
farms have, until within the past few seasons, not only yielded 
abundantly for our own population, but a large surplus has 

267 



268 AGRICULTURE 

been exported to foreign markets. The great development 
of the manufacturing and commercial interests of the country, 
coupled with the demands growing out of the war, has created 
new economic conditions that have given to agriculture and 
to food production a new significance and a larger importance 
throughout the world. The agricultural problem has become 
a national problem, not only in the United States, but in for- 
eign countries as well. Government aid and encouragement 
in agriculture, as well as government direction and control of 
the distribution of food products on a fair and economical 
basis, will come about as an immediate result of the war 
conditions, but many of the policies inaugurated will have per- 
manent results. 

There is wide recognition of the need of thorough and effi- 
cient training for agriculture. This demand has become well 
nigh universal. Agriculture and home economics, or house- 
hold science, are now required subjects in the public schools of 
most of the states, but the Smith-Hughes bill passed by the 
Congress provides an extensive and far-reaching system 
of federal aid for vocational education that will give a 
tremendous stimulus to industrial education in the United 
States. Agriculture, home economics, and the trades and in- 
dustries are to constitute the basis of the system of industrial 
education fostered by the government under this measure. It 
is probable that this policy will eventually exert greater influ- 
ence upon the educational system of the United States than 
any federal legislation that has ever been enacted. Agriculture 
is a highly concrete, practical and definite subject. Agricul- 
tural education must be based upon principles and practice 
that are scientifically sound, and strong work in science should 
support all agricultural training, yet it is well known that 
agricultural education made but little progress until it was 
definitely connected up with concrete problems, in a practical 
way. This is one of the vital and most difficult problems that 
is encountered in extending agricultural instruction into the 
public school system of the United States. The Keystone 
View Company's " 600 Set " of stereographs and lantern slides 
cover a wide range of most interesting material relating to agri- 
cultural education, and they will be of great service in effec- 
tually visualizing agricultural conditions and processes. 



19. SOILS 

By ALFRED VIVIAN, Ph.G. 

DEAN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, 

COLUMBUS. O. PRESIDENT BOARD OF EDUCATION FOR 

STATE OF OHIO 

Without the soil we could not be living in this world today. 
The food which you eat could not be produced if there was no 
soil, for the plants which make the food for animals, in their 
turn derive all their nourishment from the soil. So, you see, 
the soil is after all very important to mankind. 

We are so familiar with the soil as it now exists that most 
of us do not stop to consider that it was ever anything differ- 
ent, but it has really taken a long time for Nature to form 
what we call the soil, and in doing so she has employed the 
wonderful agencies about which something will be said in this 
article. 

Most of you know that if you dig down deep into the soil 
you will come to solid rock. Sometimes rock is reached a few 
inches below the surface, and again you must dig many feet 
before you come to it, but sooner or later you are sure to find 
a bed of stone. 

Soils consist for the most part of very fine particles of rock 
(rock powder) mixed with a small quantity of organic matter; 
i.e. the remains of plants which have formerly grown upon 
the land, and which have partially decayed or rotted in the 
soil. The rock powder was formed by the pulverization of 
the original rocks of the earth's surface, the grinding of the 
rocks being due to several forces. 

1. SOIL MAKERS 

(a) Action of Weathering 

The alternate action of heat and cold upon the rock, especially when 
the rock is saturated with water, causes the rock to crack, and small 
pieces to chip off. These pieces in their turn are made smaller and 
smaller by the same action of heat and cold, freezing and thawing. 
Freezing and thawing split the rocks into pieces, 

269 



270 AGR.— SOILS 

191 Yellowstone. Freezing and thawing split the rocks into pieces. 
208 The Grand Canyon affords wonderful examples of weathering. 
322 Chilean Andes. The softer parts of the stone are worn away first, 

leaving the harder points. 
330 Cordilleras Mts., Peru. The bits of rock which are split off slide 

into the streams, and are carried away to form a soil elsewhere. 
382 Giant's Causeway. The waves of the ocean also wear away the 

rocks. 
440 Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. Note the fine material loosened by 

weathering, which is sliding down into the valley below. 

(b) Action of Running Water 

Running water grinds the rock into flour, especially if the stream is 
swift enough to carry particles of sand or gravel which rub against 
each other and against the bed of the stream until the rock is worn 
away and ground to a powder. In this way deep valleys are some- 
times cut into the surface of the earth, and the fine material is carried 
away to form a soil at some other place. 
49 The water in Niagara Falls is gradually wearing away the face 

of the cliff over which it runs. 
51 Palisades. Running water carves deep valleys in the face of the 

earth. 
197 Yellowstone. This deep valley has been formed by running 

water. 
208 Grand Canyon. The combined action of weathering and running 

water has formed this canyon, which is a mile in depth. 
228 Yosemite. The material carried away by the streams is deposited 

somewhere to form a soil. 
363 Bettws-y-Coed, Wales. When the stream is swift enough to carry 

boulders it wears the rocks more rapidly. 
576 Victoria Falls. Such a rush of water carries large quantities of 

soil making material. 

(c) Action of Glaciers 
Another agency which helps to grind the rocks is moving ice in the 
form of glaciers. As the glacier moves along, it carries with it large 
quantities of rocks, grinding them against each other until they are 
reduced to particles of various degrees of fineness. When this ma- 
terial reaches the melting end of the glacier it is deposited, and the 
finest of the material is carried away by the glacial stream. A large 
part of the northern United States was once covered by a great gla- 
cier. 
219 Paradise Glacier. The northern part of the United States was 

once all covered with a sheet of ice much thicker than this. 
221 Mt. Hood. The glaciers of the present day give some idea of the 

action of the great glacier. 
274 Victoria Glacier. Note the rock material which the glacier is 

carrying with it and which will be deposited at the end of the 

glacier as the ice melts. 



TYPES OF SOILS 271 

275 Illecillewaet Glacier. The ice sheet in some of the glaciers is 

very thick and has great grinding power. 

276 Mt. Sir Donald. The action of weathering, running water and 

glaciers can all be seen in this picture. 

427 Glacier des Bossoms. Note the amount of material which has 

been carried down by the glacier. A young forest is growing 
on part of the " moraine." 

428 Mer de Glace. Such a sheet of ice has great power to pulverize 

stone. 
446 Switzerland is noted for its wonderful glaciers. 
448 Showing the sharp weathered point of the Matterhorn with the 
glaciers at its base. 

(d) Action of the Wind 
The wind carrying particles of dust and sand and hurling them 
against the rocks gradually carves the rocks into odd shapes and 
grinds them to powder. 

200 Phoebe's Arch, Palmer Lake, Col. The wind carried particles 

of sand which wear away the softer parts of the rock. 

201 Garden of the Gods. The wind carves the rocks into fantastic 

shapes. 

(e) Action of Volcanoes, etc. 
To a more limited extent volcanoes take part in soil formation by 
means of the ashes and lava which they throw out during eruptions. 
The soluble materials brought up by the hot springs, and the mechan- 
ical action of the earthquakes are of minor importance. 
453 Mt. Vesuvius. Some soils consist almost entirely of lava from 

the volcanoes. 
222 Crater Lake. The crater of an extinct volcano gradually being 

filled by the weathering of the side walls. 
192 Yellowstone. The soluble material in the water of the hot springs 

is deposited as the water cools. 
194 Old Faithful Geyser. Note the cone formed by the material de- 
posited from the water of the geyser. 
300, 231 Earthquake fissures. In some few cases the surface of the 
soil is affected by earthquake action. 

2. TYPES OF SOILS 
(a) Classification as to Origin 

Soils are designated as " residual," when the soils are formed from 
the underlying rock without being moved away or as " transported," 
when they are deposited at some distance from the rock from which 
they are formed. 
515 Yangtze River. Soils which are transported by water and are 

deposited in the river valley are called " alluvial " soils. They 

are generally rich soils. 
114 Tennessee River; 321 Mendoza River. The flat land near the 

river consists of alluvial soils. 



272 AGR.— SOILS 

262 Acadian Land. The alluvial soils of the lowlands are generally 

very productive. 
408 Jordal Valley, Norway. In mountainous countries only the soil 

in the bottom of the valleys can be cultivated. 
427 Chamonix, France. Soils which are transported by glaciers are 

known as " drift " soils. They usually contain much gravel 

composed of round particles of stone. Note the accumulation of 

" drift " at the foot of the glacier. 
275 Illecillewaet Glacier. Soils which are transported by the wind are 

known as " loess " soils. A large part of the soils in the corn 

belt of the United States consist of loess. Note in this picture 

the particles of dust which the wind has deposited even at the 

top of the glacier. 
322 Inca Lake, Chile. Lakes are gradually filled by the soil washed 

down from the surrounding high lands. 
453 Mt. Vesuvius. Some soils are formed directly from the ashes 

and lava deposited by volcanic action. 

(b) Classification as to Composition 

Soils consist largely of four ingredients, sand, silt, clay and organic 
matter. When they contain considerable amounts of organic matter 
they are known as " loams." The individual particles of clay are very 
fine and a soil consisting largely of clay is very sticky when wet and 
very hard when dry. It is the most difficult soil to cultivate. Sand 
is lacking in plant food. The silt particle is intermediate in size be- 
tween sand and clay. Some of the best soils contain a large proportion 
of silt. The organic matter consists largely of the more or less decayed 
remains of plants which have formerly grown on the soil. Soils are 
given various names, depending on the relative amounts of the four 
ingredients which they contain, such as sandy, sandy clay, silty, clay, 
sandy loam, clay loam, silty loam, etc. Soils which are very high in 
organic matter are called peat or muck soils. 
72 Fallen leaves decay, making rich soil. 
357 Wheat thrives on a clay loam soil with rather a high proportion of 

clay. Farmers sometimes speak of such soils as " strong " soils. 

Wheat must have an abundance of available plant food. 
147 Oats will grow in a variety of soils, but do best in a cool climate. 
136 Indian corn, or maize, thrives on a loose, fertile, well-drained 

soil. It is at home in the silty loam soils, such as the loess of 

the corn belt. 
47 Melons are usually grown on sandy loams. They will stand a 

large proportion of sand. 
149 Harvesting celery. The soils formed in swamps and the bottoms 

of old lake beds usually contain a large percentage of organic 

matter and are called muck soils. They are adapted to celery 

and onions. Such soils must be well drained. 
223 Sand dunes. Very sandy soils are so loose that they drift before 

the wind and are difficult to control. They are also very low in 

plant food. 
183 Alfalfa. Such plants as clover and alfalfa will grow only in soils 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 273 

which contain an abundance of limestone. If limestone is lack- 
ing in the soil it must be added before these crops can be grown. 
Soils formed from limestone are usually very fertile. 

3. SOIL MANAGEMENT 

(a) Clearing the Land 

A large part of the cultivated land of the world was at one time 
covered by forests, and the trees had to be removed before the ground 
could be tilled and planted. 

224 Felling tree, Oregon. Much labor and expense is involved in 
clearing such a piece of land. 
72 The decaying vegetation made a rich soil. 

(b) Tillage — Plowing 

The oldest and most important tillage operation is that of plowing. 
The effect is to loosen the soil and to turn under manures and rubbish. 
The plow is the oldest tillage implement, varying from the ancient 
crooked stick to the modern gang plow with its steel mold-board. 
561 The plow of Egypt is as old as the Pyramids themselves. 
298 Cuban plow. The first plow was merely a pointed stick. 
522 The agriculture of China is very ancient, but its plow is still the 

pointed stick. 
488 Russian plowing. This plow is better than the pointed stick be- 
cause it will turn a furrow. 

178 Tractor plow. The modern steel plow turns the soil and leaves 

it in much better condition than does the ancient plow. 

(c) Tillage — Harrowing 

After the land is plowed the harrow is used to break the clods and 
make the surface smooth. 

179 Making good seed bed. The soil should be thoroughly pulverized 

after it is plowed. 
332 Preparing the soil, Peru. Note the fine condition of the seed bed. 
549 Filipino harrowing rice field. For rice the land is sometimes 

harrowed under water. 

(d) Tillage — Cultivation 

Certain crops are planted in rows and the soil is hoed and otherwise 
cultivated between the rows in order to kill the weeds, and to prevent 
the loss of moisture by forming a layer of loose soil on the surface 
(" dust mulch "). 
105 Hoeing rice. The hand hoe is an effective implement with which 

to destroy weeds. 
198 Cultivating beets. The horse cultivator covers the ground much 

faster than can be done by hand. 
419 Women weeding beets. Hand weeding is necessary with some 

crops. 
207 This cultivator is a most modern machine. 

(e) Tillage — Dry Farming 

In regions of scanty rainfall, crops are sometimes grown every other 
year, the surface of the soil being constantly stirred during the nor 



274 AGR.— SOILS 

cropping year so as to conserve the moisture of two years for one crop. 
199 Barley raised by dry farming method. Dry farming greatly in- 
creases the crop yield in areas of scanty rainfall. 

(f) Irrigation 

Growing crops use enormous quantities of water, 900 tons or more 
to the acre. In lands of insufficient rainfall the fields are artificially 
irrigated and in many places large dams and reservoirs are constructed 
to supply the water. Some crops like rice have to be flooded with water 
during a part of the growing season. 

569 Assuan Dam. This great dam was built to provide water to irri- 
gate the farms in the Nile valley. 
237, 284 Irrigation ditches. 
209 Results of irrigating, Arizona. 
104 Rice land is covered with water during part of the growing 

season. 
528 Note the patches of rice which are growing in the standing water. 

(g) Drainage 

Some soils contain so much water that the excess must be removed 
by means of ditches or tile drains. In Holland the water is collected 
in canals and pumped out by windmill power. 
161 Reclaiming swamp land. 

399 The canals of Holland serve to drain the land and are also used 
' for transportation. 

(h) Fertilizing — Farm Manures 
Constant cropping removes the plant food from the soil, and if more 
food is not added the soil soon fails to produce a profitable crop. 
Much of the plant food removed by the crops can be returned to the 
soil if the manure of the farm animals is spread on the ground and 
plowed under. When the crops are fed in the field, as in the case 
of " hogging down " corn or pasturing sheep and other animals, the 
manure is left on the ground and helps to maintain the fertility of the 
soil. 

159, 165 Group of dairy barns. The manure from cattle is the best 
fertilizer. 
57 The dairy cow is a great help in fertilizing the soil. 
180 The manure spreader is almost indispensable on a farm. 
183 Hogs in alfalfa pasture. A good way to maintain fertility is to 
feed the crops in the ground. This is what is known as " hog- 
ging down " alfalfa. 

172 Hogs in rape field. This field will produce a large crop following 

the " hogging down " of the rape. 

173 Sheep are said to have the " golden hoof " because the ground is 

thought to be more fertile after they are pastured on it. 
480 Sheep on Argive plains. These old fields would be still less fer- 
tile if it were not for the flocks of sheep. 

(i) Green Manures — Leguminous Plants 
Green crops plowed under help to keep the soil fertile. Leguminous 
plants such as clover and alfalfa can by means of the bacteria which 



CROP RESULTS 275 

grow in the nodules on their roots fix the nitrogen of the air and 
when plowed under they greatly enrich the soil. 

181 Nebraska. When alfalfa land is plowed it is found to grow better 
crops than before the alfalfa was planted. 

(j) Fertilizing — Commercial Fertilizers 

In many cases it is necessary to buy commercial forms of plant food 
if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. This is especially true 
of phosphorus as it is sold from the farm in the grains, in milk, and 
in the bones of animals. Bone meal from the packing houses is used 
to supply phosphorus for fertilizers, but more of it comes from the 
so-called phosphate rocks which are found in several of the States. 
115 Mining phosphate. Deposits of phosphate rock are found in sev- 
eral places in this country. 

(k) Crop Results 
Careful observance of the practices which maintain the fertility of 
the soil make it possible to produce large crops continuously. 
357 Wheat. England by careful fertilizing still produces large crops 

of wheat, although her land has been farmed for centuries. 
149. Celery. The right conditions of moisture and plant food make 

large crops possible. 
237 The orange growers of California know that they must irrigate 
and fertilize to obtain large crops. 
47 Melons. In addition to plenty of water and plant food such a 

melon crop demands warmth and sunlight. 
108 Pineapples. Such crops are not produced by accident, but are 
the results of following the laws of good husbandry. 



20. FARM CROPS 

By W. M. JARDINE, B.S.A., LL.D. 

PRESIDENT OF KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 
MANHATTAN, KAN. 

All children know that animals require food, water, air and 
warmth but they do not know so generally that plants also 
must have food, water, air, and warmth. Neither do they un- 
derstand the importance of plant life. All animal life, includ- 
ing human beings, is dependent upon plant life. The greater 
part of the food of both mankind and animals is vegetable. 
The meat that we eat is first derived from plants because the 
animals from which it is obtained live on plants. Without 
plants no animal could live; therefore, the culture of plants is 
the most important phase of agriculture. 

Plants get their food from the soil and the air through 
roots and leaves. The leaves of the plant take food material 
from the air in the form of gas. The water in the soil absorbs 
plant food materials. This water is absorbed by the roots of 
the plant and the food materials are converted into plant tis- 
sues to serve, in turn, as food for animals. The plant secures 
all its water and ash and part of its organic matter from the 
soil through its roots. The soil then is very necessary to 
plant growth. All soils are not alike. By referring to the 
chapter entitled Soils, it will be found that soils differ in 
mode of formation and in the materials from which they are 
formed. Soils also differ in fertility and moisture holding 
power, and consequently in their ability to produce crops. 

It is not enough that there be plant food in abundance in 
the soil. This food must be in a form available for plant use. 
It is largely the business of the farmer who produces crops 
to handle the soil in such manner as to provide food in a form 
readily available for plant use. This may be accomplished by 
tilling or cultivating the soil and by supplying plant food to 

the soil. 

27G 



FARM CROPS 277 



CROP PRODUCTION 

Let us notice the steps in the process of producing and caring for a 
farm crop. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 
The first thing necessary is to loosen the soil so that it may become 
permeated with air and warmth and absorb rain quickly ; also that the 
roots of plants may penetrate it easily. This is generally done by plow- 
ing. The soil must not be too loose, however, or it will not retain 
moisture. It must not be too rough or the seeds cannot be covered 
evenly. The lumps or clods must be broken finely and the surface made 
smooth before the seed is planted. A carefully prepared seed-bed will 
contain moisture and food read3'- for the plant. It will be sufficiently 
warm for seeds to germinate and loose enough for the roots of the 
young plants to penetrate readily. 

The following views show different means of preparing land for the 
planting of crops. 

i. Primitive Methods 

561 Egypt ; 522, China ; 488, Russia. 

2. Modern Methods 

136, 398 The horse is a very important source of native power on the 

farm. 
178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor. 
179, 332 Clods of earth should be broken finely. 
549 Even soil of flooded areas should be prepared. 
161 For most crops excessive moisture must be removed. 
180 Fertilizing manure spread evenly on the land and plowed under 

enriches the soil. 
159, 165, 358, 364. 173 The best system of farming includes the keeping 

of live stock on the farm. 
166 Rotation of crops is important in maintaining the fertility of the 

soil. Potatoes leave the soil in excellent condition for other 

crops, especially small grains. This is the same farm as shown 

in view 165, originally a potato farm ; the dairy was added to 

maintain fertility. 

PLANTING 

After the soil has been prepared as in view 179, the seed may be 
planted. The seed must be covered deep enough to get plenty of mois- 
ture to germinate it, but not so deep that air will be excluded. The 
young plants soon begin to make use of the light and air in preparing 
a part of their own food. 

CULTIVATION 

Some crops are planted in rows some distance apart and these crops 
require cultivation. Cultivation has a threefold purpose, viz., to de- 



278 AGRICULTURE 

stroy weeds, to conserve moisture, and to make the plant food in the 
soil ready for use by the plant. Cultivation may be done by hand or 
by various types of horse cultivators. Crops planted thickly such as 
wheat and oats, tend to keep out the weeds ; the protection of the 
ground from sun and wind tends to prevent escape of moisture from 
the surface, consequently crops so planted do not require cultivation. 

In regions where there is little rainfall, dry-farming is practiced. 
Under this system land is sometimes planted to crops only one season 
in two years. The season no crop is grown on the land, moisture is 
conserved by cultivation at frequent intervals. Frequent cultivation 
keeps the surface soil in a loose condition so that all moisture that falls 
is absorbed readily and prevents evaporation from the surface. In dry- 
farming cultivation is done chiefly to conserve moisture. 
419 Women cultivating sugar beets by hand. 
105 Another method of cultivating crops by hand. 
198 Most of the cultivation of farm crops is done by means of the 

horse cultivator. 
184 Corn — the greatest cultivated crop in America. 
207 Cultivating a field of cotton in Arizona. 

235 In arid regions special crops are produced which have the power 
to grow with little rainfall and withstand long periods of drouth. 

HARVESTING 
After the crop has reached a certain size cultivation ceases and it is 
left to develop naturally until it is ripe or mature enough to harvest. 
Methods of harvesting different crops vary greatly as is shown in the 
following list of farm crops and in the classification on Production and 
Manufacturing. 

THRESHING, STORING, MANUFACTURING 

The handling of crops after harvest also varies greatly as will be 
seen by a study of some of the most important farm crops. 

IMPORTANT FARM CROPS 
Wheat and Barley 

Wheat is grown most extensively on the fertile prairie soils of 
America and Europe. The United States and Russia are the greatest 
wheat producing countries of the world. The leading wheat producing 
states of the United States are North Dakota, Kansas, Minnesota, 
Nebraska, Washington, and South Dakota. Wheat is used chiefly for 
human food because it is the best grain for making light bread. Wheat 
is usually grown in large fields and most of the work is done by ma-. 
chinery. In the following views it will be noticed that the men are 
doing very little work by hand. 

178. 179 Show how the land is prepared before the seed is sown. 
357 Harvesting wheat with the self-binder. This machine cuts the 
wheat, makes it into neat bundles, and ties a string around the 
bundle. 



FARM CROPS 279 

199 This machine cuts off the heads of barley, leaving the straw to be 
plowed under. 

147 Wheat is hauled in this way to the stack or threshing machine. 

177 Threshing wheat. Mountains of straw from which the grain has 
been removed. 

233 In some dry sections wheat can be cut and threshed at one opera- 
tion. California. 

218 Harvesting wheat in Washington — Combined reaper and thresher. 

479 Greece ; 497, 498 Palestine — Primitive methods. 

Corn 

Corn is the king of cereals. The average annual world's production 
is over 3.7 billion bushels which exceeds the yield of wheat, rice, or 
any other cereal. Corn is a native of America. The United States 
produces an average of over 2.7 billion bushels. This is over fourteen 
times as much as any other country in the world produces, and forms 
nearly three-fourths of the world's supply of corn. Other corn pro- 
ducing countries are Roumania, Egypt, Austria-Hungary, Argentine, 
Mexico, Italy, Russia, and Canada. Over half of the corn crop of the 
world is produced in the seven states : Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Mis- 
souri, Indiana, Ohio, and Kansas. 
184 A field of corn in Kansas. 
136, 160 Modern methods of harvesting corn. 
165, 159 Corn put into the silo and fed to stock yields a good profit and 

the manure from the stock aids in maintaining the fertility of 

the soil. 

Rice 

Rice is an important article of food for nearly half of the population 
of the world. It furnishes the principal food for more people than 
any other one crop. Rice is grown only in warm sections. India, 
China, Japan, Siam, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, East Indies, and the 
Philippine Islands produce most of the rice of the world. In the 
United States, rice is grown chiefly in South Carolina, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Rice, unlike any other grain, grows 
best when the plants are partially covered with water. It is therefore 
necessary that the land be very level so that the water will stand at an 
even depth over the field. Rice may be sown like wheat on well pre- 
pared land and water turned on the field after the plants get well 
started to grow. In some countries rice is planted in mud and water, 
or the plants are grown in small beds and transplanted into the mud 
just as we set out cabbage or tomato plants. The ground is kept cov- 
ered with water until the crop begins to ripen when it is drained off and 
the field allowed to dry before time to harvest the crop. 

In some rice growing sections, water is not left on the field con- 
tinuously. Sometimes there are three applications of water. The 
" sprout water " is applied as soon as the seed is planted and is left on 
only a few days. The " stretch water " is applied when the plants have 
two leaves and is left on about 30 days. When this water is turned off 



280 AGRICULTURE 

the field is allowed to dry and the weeds and grass are hoed from 
among the plants. View 105 shows a field in South Carolina receiving 
this cultivation. After the plants begin to joint a third and final appli- 
cation of water is made. This is the " loyby flow " and is left on until 
the plants are mature. 

549 Filipino farmers preparing land for rice. 

528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 

104 Irrigation of rice fields from canals. 
530 Rice fields under irrigation. 

105 Hoeing weeds and grass from among the rice plants before the 

water is turned on. 

529 Harvesting rice just as wheat but in many countries primitive 

methods are still used. 
527 Primitive method of threshing grain. 

550 Removing rough hulls from the grain before use as human food. 

Oats 

Oats are an important farm crop. They are grown extensively in 
the cooler part of the United States, in Canada and in Europe. 
408 Oats growing in Norway within sight of a glacier. (Note method 

of curing hay in foreground.) 
147 Harvesting oats in the corn belt — Illinois. 

Sugar 

Practically all the sugar of the world is made from two plants, 
sugar cane and the sugar beet. Each of these produce about one- 
half the supply. Sugar cane is a tall, coarse-growing plant raised 
chiefly in British India, Cuba, Java, Hawaiian Islands, Philippine Is- 
lands, the United States, and South America. In the United States 
it is grown chiefly in Louisiana and Texas. Sugar cane is started by 
laying a continuous line of stalks in a row and covering them. New 
plants start from the joints and grow to a height of 8 to 15 feet. 
When mature the plants are cut and the tops and heavy leaves re- 
moved. The stalks are hauled to the factory and the juice pressed 
from them by means of heavy rollers. The juice is purified and heated 
to drive off the water. It then crystallizes into sugar. 

332 Preparing the soil for sugar cane. Tractor drawing harrow and 

pulverizer, Peru, South America. 

333 Replanting cane. Young cane plants will sprout up from the 

joints of stalks planted in furrows. 
258 Cutting the sugar cane. 

A hundred years ago the sugar beet contained only 6 to 8 per cent, of 
sugar. By carefully selecting each year and planting for seed those 
beets which contained the highest per cent, of sugar, a type of beet has 
been developed which contains 16 per cent, or more of sugar. The 
leading countries in the production of sugar bjeets are Germany, Russia, 
Austria-Hungary, France, and the United States. The beets are 
planted in rows and cultivated and hoed as are garden beets. When 



FARM CROPS 281 

ready for harvest they are pulled, the tops removed and the roots 

hauled to the factory. Here the roots are sliced finely and the sweet 

juice removed. From this juice sugar is made. 

419 Cultivating beets, Sweden. The young plants require careful at- 
tention. 

198 Cultivating beets, Colo. When the plants become larger a two- 
horse cultivator is used. 

270 Beets stored in sheds with V-shaped bins having canals underneath 

to carry them to the washing drum. 

271 Beet pulp and juice flowing into large iron tanks where the sugar 

is removed from the pulp by water. 
35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 
34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from the drying kiln. 
185 Cattle are fed on the pulp of the sugar beets from which the sweet 
juice has been removed. 

Tobacco 
As a field crop, tobacco was first grown in Virginia in 1612. The 
world crop amounts to about 2.5 billion pounds of which nearly one 
billion is produced in the United States. Other countries which pro- 
duce tobacco are British India, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Japan, and 
the islands of Cuba and Java. 
112 A tobacco field in Kentucky. 

297 Harvesting tobacco, Havana Province, Cuba. Tobacco must be 
cut and the leaves hung up carefully to cure. The quality of 
tobacco is improved by growing the plants in partial shade, hence 
the companion crop of banana plants. In Florida it is some- 
times grown under sheds with partial roofs ; in Connecticut 
many acres are grown under canvas. 

Cotton 

Cotton is the greatest of all fiber crops. Most of the clothing of 
mankind is made from cotton. Cotton is grown only in warm cli- 
mates. Over three-fourths of all the cotton in the world is produced in 
the United States south of a line drawn from Norfolk, Virginia, to 
Memphis, Tennessee, thence west to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and El 
Paso, Texas. In the United States cotton is exceeded in value only by 
corn and hay. Other countries important in the production of cotton 
are India, Egypt, and China. Much of the labor of raising cotton is 
done by hand. The crop is planted in rows much like corn. After 
the plants are three or four weeks old they are thinned to the desired 
stand. This must be done by hand. The crop is cultivated several 
times and usually hoed. When mature the cotton is picked by hand 
and hauled to the gin where the seeds are separated from the lint and 
the latter put into large bales weighing about 500 pounds each ^>nd bound 
with iron bands. 

207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 
117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 
124 Loads of cotton ready for the gin. 
119 Bales of cotton at the wharf ready for shipment. 



282 AGRICULTURE 

An important fiber crop is hemp which furnishes material for making 
such articles as ropes, burlap, binding twine, and mats. Sisal hemp 
comes chiefly from the fiber of henequen, a plant which grows in the 
Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, and somewhat in Florida and in Africa. 
Henequen is very much like our century plant and grows on land that 
is apparently worthless for other crops. 

Hemp 

Manila hemp is derived from plantain, a tree-like plant (abaca) of 
the banana family which grows in the Philippine Islands. Shawls are 
made from the finer fiber of plantain and ropes from the coarser fiber. 
Our binder twine and much of our other cordage is made from the 
henequen or sisal hemp plant. 
289 Old henequen plants from which many leaves have been removed 

for the manufacture of the sisal fiber. Yucatan. 
571 Henequen plants, showing the tall flower stalks, Uganda, Africa. 
552 Stripping the stems of plantain to obtain Manila hemp fiber. 

Forage Crops 

Forage crops and live stock are two great essentials to a permanent 
system of agriculture. Live stock will consume much rough feed and 
convert it into valuable meat, at the same time producing manure 
which is of great value in keeping land fertile and productive. 
172 Ames, Iowa. Rape makes a desirable hog pasture. 
118 Harvesting peanuts, Arkansas. Choice bacon and ham is pro- 
duced in the south from hogs fed on peanuts. 
183 Hogs in alfalfa. Alfalfa is our greatest legume. It is rich in 

protein — the food which makes young stock grow. 
317 Some of the famous beef cattle of Argentina are grown on alfalfa 

pasture. 
181 Harvesting alfalfa. The modern method of handling hay. 
388 The old method of handling hay, Germany. 
408 Curing hay under difficult conditions, Norway. 
127, 186, 301 The natural forage of extensive areas is harvested by 

great herds of cattle. 
480, 190, 173 Sheep are also used to consume the wild plants of plains 

and mountains as well as the more abundant grasses of our best 

pastures. 
185, 140, 370 Farm crops may be marketed as beef after being fed on the 

farm. 
371, 403, 57 Crops fed to cows and marketed as milk yield a good profit. 
235 Spineless cactus, a promising new forage plant for semi-arid 

regions. 

Other Agricultural Products 

166 Potatoes grown in the famous potato region of the Red River 
Valley, Minnesota. Harvesting potatoes by use of potato digging 
machines. 
47 Picking and loading cantaloupes, New York, 



FARM CROPS , 2S3 

118 Peanuts, a valuable food product. The pods are removed from 
the vines and allowed to dry thoroughly before marketing. 

137 Pumpkins as an inter-crop with corn. 

149 Celery raised on rich muck land. The bunches after being washed 
and packed are sent to market ready for us as food. 

294 Bananas on cultivated plantation. 

285, 287 Maguey plants from which pulque is made. 

375 Cabbage, potatoes, turnips and other vegetables are valuable and 
usually cheap foods. 



21. GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOODLOT 

By R. L. WATTS, M.S. 

PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, DEAN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- 
TURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION, STATE 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, STATE COLLEGE, PA. 

I. GARDENING 

The home garden as an economic factor cannot be over- 
estimated. Very many families, by intensive cultivation, raise 
the summer supply of vegetables and part of the winter supply, 
on a very small plot of land. Since the war began, gardening 
has become a war measure in the conservation of food. These 
gardens are giving outdoor work to men who are accustomed to 
work indoors and are doing a great health work. Market gar- 
dening is carried on wherever the produce can reach the cities. 

83 The school-gardens are an important part of industrial education 
and they will occupy a still more important place as the country 
grows older. They aid materially in the food supply, give the 
children habits of industry, and cultivate the art of using the 
hands. Also they cause some to take up farm life and become 
professional food producers. 

47 The cantaloupe or muskmelon is an important trucking crop from 
the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. This truck farm is on the 
Lake Shore, which is especially adapted to fruit-raising because 
the large body of water stabilizes the temperature, preventing 
the early spring budding and the late frost. 
137 A field of pumpkins. While the pumpkin is not considered a hor- 
ticultural crop, it makes such good pies that every horticulturist 
likes to grow a few for home use. It is also worth noting that 
pumpkins generally command good prices in the larger local 
markets. 
149 The celery industry in the United States has grown to mammoth 
proportions. Some years ago the Kalamazoo district was made 
famous by its extensive fields, but now we find immense areas 
of this vegetable in various parts of the United States, especially 
where there are muck soils for its culture. Celery thrives best 
in deep, moist soils and muck lands seem to provide these ideal 
conditions. 

284 



GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 285 

419 Beets are found in every home garden. Until the plants are large, 
some handwork is necessary to keep the weeds under control. 
The frequent and skillful use of wheel hoes, however, will 
reduce the handwork to a minimum and this is exceedingly 
important if the beets are to be produced more economically. 
The beets in 198 are grown under irrigation. 

166, 47 The potato is for the most part grown as a field crop, but it 
is likewise an essential to the garden. The potato prefers a 
loose, loamy or sandy, well drained soil. There is scarcely any 
crop that responds so well to the heavy use of fertilizers. The 
potato is an important food crop in many countries. It thrives 
best in a cool climate. Dr. Patten, Dean of the Wharton School 
of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, states 
that the potato was a direct factor in causing the great World 
War. The introduction of the potato to the sandy soils of 
Prussia enormously increased the food supply, which in turn 
was followed by marked increase in population, enabling Prus- 
sia to dominate Germany. 

209, 210 Irrigation. Most garden crops require abundant moisture. 
This may often be obtained by thorough cultivation, thus pre- 
venting evaporation of the ground moisture. More and more 
gardens are being irrigated by overhead spraying systems. Nat- 
urally in connection with our great irrigation systems supplying 
all needed water, gardening may be carried on most advantage- 
ously. The statement is made that if Germany, at the beginning 
of the war, had been generally equipped with the most up-to-date 
irrigation systems as we know them in most parts of America, 
she would have had no serious difficulty in maintaining an ade- 
quate food supply. 

423 The city flower markets of foreign countries must be exceedingly 
interesting. Not only are the flowers beautiful but the people 
themselves add to the picturesqueness of these markets. It is 
gratifying to know that flowers are being sold more and more 
on our own city markets. 

II. LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

10 The village people of New England give their street trees better 
attention than do the people of some other States. Note the 
device around the fine old elm to prevent insects from going up 
the tree. These fine old trees throughout New England are 
appreciated and everything possible is done to protect them. 

36 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. This old cemetery is kept in excellent 

condition. It is an object lesson to those who are careless in 
taking care of the grounds where their loved ones are sleeping. 
Trees, shrubs, and hardy perennials should be used instead of 
tender annual plants, which soon die and disappear. 

37 Washington's headquarters at Newburgh on the Hudson. The 

splendid old trees in the background and vines on the building 
give this old house a most pleasing appearance. Hundreds of 



286 AGRICULTURE 

humble homes might be made just as attractive as this one by 
the proper use of plants and trees. 

90 Part of the city of Washington. The people of Washington are 

proud of their thousands of fine trees and shrubs. The collec- 
tion as found along the streets and in the parks represents a 
great number of different species. 

91 The formal type of gardening as shown in this picture is pleasing 

to a great many people. The fountain in the center of the 
view is a prominent feature of the landscape. 
93 A general view looking over Washington. The student of land- 
scape gardening will be interested in noting the arrangement of 
trees in the foreground. They are arranged in groups along 
the avenues, leaving large, broad expanses without any trees. 
95 Congressional Library, Washington. The curved walks and 
drives of this view help to make it highly attractive. The use of 
curves in landscape gardening is one of the means of making 
beautiful landscape effects. 

169 A bit of water with a canoe and occupants and tine trees in the 
background always present a most pleasing appearance. Note 
the wigwam on the right, which is reflected in the water. 

241 San Gabriel Mission. This old building would not be half so 
attractive without the splendid specimens of palms which beau- 
tify the foreground. 

249 Street in Colon. This would be a very commonplace picture were 
it not for the tall palms planted near the house. They give the 
scene a restful appearance which could be secured in no other 
way. 

259 Papaya trees in Hawaii. The people of tropical regions are fond 
of planting along their walks and streets palms and other tropi- 
cal plants, just as we like to plant maples and other shade trees 
along our streets and roadways. They provide more or less 
shade and make the landscape exceedingly beautiful. 

262 In the Acadian land. When we journey to the far North we are 
attracted by the fine specimens of evergreens. A few well- 
grown specimens as shown in the foreground of this picture are 
essential features in many of the northern landscapes. 

316 A South American Park, Buenos Aires. This view is not unlike 
the ones which are common in the best parks in the United 
States. The broad, sweeping curves and splendid trees are 
noticeable features in this park. 

355 Anne Hathaway's home. The well trimmed hedge and vines on 

the wall add greatly to the beauty of the scene. The well kept 
hedges of England are certainly more beautiful than the bare 
picket fences once so universal in America. 

356 Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 

Cattle, sheep, horses and other livestock always add to the beauty 
as well as the interest of a landscape. The contentment of these 
cows is thoroughly in accord with the quiet and beauty of the 
landscape. 



GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 287 

360 In England great attention is paid to landscape gardening. These 

trees trimmed so closely and the wall covered with vines are 
typical of the country. 

361 Lake Grasmere. Those who are interested in landscape garden- 

ing will do well to study the composition of this picture. Noth- 
ing can be omitted without sacrificing the attractiveness of the 
view. Tlie massed trees which stand in the foreground, the 
expanse of water broken by the island in the middle, the village 
on the other side of the lake, and the mountains in the back- 
ground, all go to make this an unusual scene. In planting 
gardens and trees, care should be taken not to cut off beautiful 
views. 

362 The home of Wordsworth. A very humble home made beautiful 

by the skillful use of trees, shrubs and vines. This is a splendid 
demonstration of what might be accomplished around thousands 
of inexpensive dwellings. 

376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. This old castle would have little to 

make it attractive were it not for the hedge and trees in the 
foreground. 

377 The Lakes of Killarney. After all, Dame Nature cannot be ex- 

celled as a landscape gardener ! 
386 Hamburg. The water front is beautified by the planting of trees 

wherever that is possible. 
422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris. The French people love trees 

and they are careful to give their street plantings the very best 

attention. 

534 In the Land of Flowers. The Japanese are great lovers of flowers 

and particularly of the cherry blossoms. The " Feast of the 
Cherry Blossoms " is an annual celebration and all the people 
go where they can see and admire the beautiful flowers of this 
tree. 

535 A Japanese garden is extremely interesting to a landscape gar- 

dener. They are especially skillful in dwarfing trees. The gar- 
den is more like a picture, a beautiful miniature, than it is like 
a real garden. 
126 A view in San Antonio, Texas. The plants are arranged in an 
extremely formal manner. 

III. ORCHARDING 

85 Peach harvest. New Jersey. Delaware, the Lake shore and 
warmer parts of the country produce immense quantities of 
peaches. These may be yellow or white with the pulp free from 
or clinging to the stone. Peach trees are very tender. They 
must be snraved and pruned and carefully cultivated. They are 
short-lived trees. 



288 AGRICULTURE 

108 Harvesting pineapples. This picture gives you some idea of the 
extent of the pineapple industry in Florida. Pineapples are 
grown on a very large scale and shipped. They are largely 
used for canning and preserving. The industry is profitable 
when properly managed. 
44 In order to produce good fruit, trees must be sprayed. A strong 
spray is used when the trees are bare and weaker ones when 
in leaf. The trunks must be kept smooth and clean. Be- 
side producing better fruit, trees that are well kept live 
longer. 

175 Harvesting apples. Scenes of this character are now common 
in all apple-producing districts of the United States. A large 
proportion of the apple crop is placed in barrels, though many 
of the better specimens are packed in boxes. 

234 An immense quantity of almonds, as well as other nuts, are grown 
in California for market. The student should note how thor- 
oughly this orchard has been cultivated. This is one of the 
main reasons why the California horticulturists grow such fine 
nuts as well as fruit. They give their trees as well as their 
land the very best treatment. 

236 California vineyards. These grapes are the result of intensive 

culture. The California vineyards have become famous for 
their large crops of grapes. Some of the bunches are mam- 
moth in size, as shown in the picture before us. 

319 Vineyard in South America. This view shows the work which 
must be done in a successful vineyard. The vines must be cut 
back and the ground carefully cultivated. There must also be 
supports to keep the vines up with room to grow. 

390 Some very fine vineyards may be found on the hills of Germany. 
These people have found it necessary to make all of their 
tillable land yield maximum returns. Note the thrifty growth 
of the vines. 

237 A California orange grove of 10,000 acres. After seeing these 

immense orange groves of California, one wonders what is done 
with all of the fruit. The most intensive systems of culture 
and management are used in these groves and all possible care 
is exercised in picking and forwarding the fruit to market. 

238 Orange blossoms and fruit. To those of us who are accustomed 

to seeing such fruit trees as apples, pear, peach and cherry, 
it seems strange to see both fruit and flowers on the tree at the 
same time. The large green foliage and the beautiful blossoms 
and fruits of the orange make the trees exceedingly attractive. 

437 Picking Valencia oranges. It is not a difficult matter to pick 
oraneres from these low, well trained trees. Our American boys 
would not like to carry such a large load on top of their heads. 

240 Olive trees. In California the olive is extensively cultivated. 
Great quantities of olive oil are made. 



GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 289 

294 Harvesting bananas. This is exceedingly interesting to boys and 
girls as well as grown folks who are fond of bananas. They 
are practically green when harvested and shipped to northern 
storage houses for ripening. It is surprising how cheaply this 
fruit can be sold in our northern markets after being transported 
so far. 

530 The tea farms are usually small and require careful cultivation 
and much attention, for the plant will thrive only in well 
manured or very rich soil. Although an evergreen, the leaves 
are useful only at a certain season. This Japanese maiden 
seems to be very happy as she starts out for a basket of tea 
leaves. The Japanese love plants and outdoor life, and all of 
us in America will do well to copy after them in this respect. 

551 Husking coconuts. This beautiful scene of large piles of coco- 
nuts under the trees from which they have been harvested, gives 
us some idea of the quantities of coconuts which are used. 

IV. THE WOOD LOT 

1 Logging in Aroostook Co., Maine. Scenes like this are common 
in Maine and other states where the land is heavily forested. 
The land had to be cleared and some farmers, lacking foresight, 
cleared all their land as soon as they could. 

72 Woodcock on nest. Birds eat destructive insects and worms. 

Woodland conserves rainfall. The rain cannot run off and the 
trees prevent rapid evaporation. The wood lot, then, is im- 
portant in conserving moisture since the united woods of a 
neighborhood may cover an appreciable area. It is also im- 
portant as the home of birds. 
74 On bare hills the rain runs off rapidly, swelling the stream at the 
base. This results in sudden floods very destructive to farm- 
ing interests. 
445 The farmer with a wood lot has a constant supply of wood for 
fuel. 

73 Pennsylvania ; 445 Switzerland. The farmer with a wood lot 

has a supply of wood for posts, building material and all the 
uses so numerous on a farm. 
38 Hudson Valley. Notice how the hills are wooded. That pre- 
vents quick drainage of rainfall. The low land is partly 
wooded. The force of wind in the district is broken. Each 
farmer has a constant source of revenue, as the trees suitable 
for cutting are taken out year by year and the others are 
allowed to grow. 
70, 71 Chestnut, elm, maples and other hard woods are increasing 
in value each year. 

107 Turpentine farm. In the South a piece of such timber would 
yield turpentine, rosin and tar, besides a supply of pine timber 
valued in building. 

130 Tapping a maple tree. This work is attended to at the approach 
of warmer spring weather. There is something especially in- 



290 AGRICULTURE 

vigorating and uplifting in working among the trees at this 
season of the year. Farmers who do not have a maple sugar 
grove might add to their incomes as well as to the pleasure of 
their homes by planting a large number of sugar maples along 
the roadside or perhaps on rough land which is not suitable for 
agricultural purposes. A maple grove is also a source of timber 
and fuel supply. 

162 A huge sled-load of logs. It is surprising how many logs a team 
can haul if there is snow on the ground. 

184 On our prairies and plains timber was very scarce and was ac- 
cordingly valued the more highly. Such a wood as is shown 
in the background will be carefully conserved. 
70, 72, 184 Some states, to encourage the care of woodland, give a 
rebate on the taxes of such land. 

224 A very large tree of the Northwest. Trees of such mammoth size 
are common in California and throughout the Northwest. It 
may interest our readers to know, however, that some very 
large trees may be found in the eastern part of the United 
States. For example, some years ago the writer measured a 
chestnut tree in Montgomery County, Md., which was 12 feet 
in diameter. In 1888 a white pine tree was felled near Lumber 
City, Pa., that measured 100 feet in length after the limbs were 
removed and the spar was ready for market. Sixteen horses 
were required to draw it to the river. The butt of the tree was 
about 5 feet in diameter. 
463 The wood supply in Bohemia is carefully conserved. 
586 The eucalyptus trees of Australia rival the big redwood trees of 
California. 



22. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

By W. A. COCHEL 

FIELD REPRESENTATIVE OF THE AMERICAN SHORT-HORN 
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, KANSAS STATE AGRI- 
CULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KAN. 

History shows that no permanent and profitable system of 
agriculture has been developed without livestock as a dominant 
factor, except on comparatively small farms, when special 
crops are produced. The most powerful nations of the world 
are those which are noted for their extensive development of 
livestock. More than one half of all the expenditures for 
food in the United States are for animal products. The 
problems of maintaining soil fertility and increasing acre yields 
of crops are most easily solved when the by-products from 
feeding livestock are available. The usefulness and value of 
animals of all kinds on the farms is an item to which too much 
attention can scarcely be given. 

DAIRY CATTLE 
57 New Jersey; 159 Wisconsin; 165 Minnesota; 403 Holland. Hol- 
stein cattle are distinguished by their color, .vhich is always 
black and white, for their very heavy milk production, high total 
yield of butter, and low percentage of butter fat. These cattle 
are the largest of all the dairy breeds. 

364 Jersey cattle come from the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel. 
The predominating color is fawn varying from a golden yellow 
to black with brown marking. They are frequently found with 
white markings on any part of the body. They are noted for the 
extreme richness in butter fat of the milk they produce and are 
the most popular of all breeds as family cows and near cities 
where milk with a high percentage of butter fat is called for. 

371 The Ayrshire is a typical breed of dairy cattle, originated in Scot- 
land. They do not produce as much milk as the Holstein, nor 
is it as rich as that of the Jersey. Their milk comes more 
nearly meeting the requirements of the best city's trade, without 
modification than that from any other breed of dairy cattle. 
The Ayrshire is smoother and more thickly muscled than the 
other breeds of dairy cattle, hence are not discriminated against 
too much, by buyers of beef cattle on the markets. They are 
291 



292 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

better grazers and thrive on poorer pastures than the other 
breeds of dairy cattle. 

356 Dairy Shorthorn cattle, England. While the Shorthorn is mostly 
a beef breed, in England considerable attention has been given 
to the development of the Shorthorn as dairy cattle. Perhaps 
three-fourths of the milk delivered to the City of London comes 
from this breed of cattle. Usually stock raisers wish cattle 
highly efficient either for beef or milk production. Many 
farmers, however, wish cattle that will give a fair milk supply 
as well as being satisfactory for beef. The dairy Shorthorns 
meet this requirement. Such cattle are known as dual-purpose 
cattle. 

339 The dairy cow indicated in this view does not represent any of 
the breeds of special dairy cattle but belongs to the ordinary 
common stock of the country. She has the typically long, nar- 
row head, sharp withers and depth of body and wedge shape 
which indicates that her performance at the pail would be 
creditable. 

BEEF CATTLE 

317 The predominate breed of cattle in Argentina is the Shorthorn. 
They are very popular in America and Great Britain. Red, 
white and roan are the typical Shorthorn colors. These cattle 
are the largest of any of the beef breeds, mature early and 
dress out a high percentage of beef to live weight. When 
finished the carcass yields a high proportion of high priced 
meat such as rib and loin, in which the fat and lean portions 
are so distributed as to present a beautifully marbled cut of 
beef. 

358 Hereford cattle originated in Herfordshire, England. The typi- 
cal color is red with white face, a little white on crest and 
feet. They are noted as the best grazers of any of the breeds 
of beef cattle; they mature at an extremely early age, are 
hardy and able to withstand extremely adverse conditions. 
This has made them the most popular of all breeds for range 
purposes. They are especially heavy in their fore ribs and 
heart girth, also in their loins. 

370 Aberdeen-Angus cattle originated in Scotland. They are black 
and hornless, of the extreme beef type, short legged, blocky, 
thickly and evenly fleshed, mature at a very early age and pro- 
duce when slaughtered, a smooth even carcass of well marbled 
beef. Aberdeen-Angus steers have won more championships for 
fat cattle at the leading American shows than those of any 
other beef breed. They dress out an unusually high percentage 
of beef to live weight. 

127 Texas range cattle have been bred up from a Spanish or native 
foundation by the use of Hereford and Shorthorn bulls. The re- 
sult of the attention to breeding has made the range cattle better 
for the production of beef and more desirable in the feed lots 



DRAFT HORSES 293 

than those that are produced in the older farming sections of 
the country. 

185 The steers feeding in this view are typical range cattle from the 

herds from Texas, branded so as to distinguish them from 
other cattle when they become mixed. These cattle were taken 
out of the pasture on the 15th of August and put on full feed 
of corn and cotton-seed meal, bran and oats, the purpose being 
to put a sufficient amount of flesh on them to have them classify 
on the market as choice beef. They were fed ninety days. 

186 Cattle shown in the round-up are of a mixed breeding and typical 

of the cattle that are found in the short grass country. The 
improvement being made by the use of pure bred beef bulls 
in herds of this sort is remarkable. 

140 Stock yards, Chicago. These cattle are similar to those in 186 
except that they have been fattened for market, probably on 
the farms in the corn belt. 

301 The cattle of Jamaica are typical of the old-fashioned long horned 
steers of the early days of Texas. The same kind of cattle are 
being produced in Mexico. They are cattle very deep in the 
heart girth, narrow through the crops and loins, with compara- 
tively little muscular development in the hind quarters. They 
are noted for their constitution and rustling abilities. 

548 Philippines. The cattle of Southern Asia do not represent any 
of the breeds which are of importance in America. They are 
from the same source as the sacred cattle of India, which are 
used for draft purposes rather than for meat. 

DRAFT HORSES 

138 Percheron horses originated in France, their popularity is due 
to the fact that the French government has encouraged their 
breeding. They are the most widely distributed of all the 
breeds of draft horses in America. They are noted for size, 
quality, and disposition. The predominating colors are grey 
and black. 

166 The potato sections of the United States demand the heaviest type 
and highest priced draft horses that are produced, because of 
the heavy machinery which they must handle and the weight 
of the loads which they must take to market. 

398 Belgian horses are of the extreme draft type, short legged, deep 
bodied, and heavily muscled. They are kept fat very easily, 
which makes them quite attractive. The predominant colors 
are sorrel, roan and bay. They are second in importance among 
the draft breeds in America 

320 The cart horse must have weight and substance in order for it to 
handle heavy loads without material effort. They usually pos- 
sess some blood of the draft breeds. The picture indicates a 



294 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

horse of less bone and lighter type than is usually used for this 
purpose. 

CARRIAGE HORSES 

312 Carriage horses have almost been eliminated from the city streets 
on account of the development of the automobile. They were 
usually matched as to color, size, style and action. Typical 
carriage horses were sixteen hands high and weighed 1,250 
pounds each. They were symmetrical, carried their heads 
and tails well and were noted for their beauty of style and 
action. 

195 Horses used on stage coaches are usually very rugged, of a type 
which is remarkable for endurance, quickness of action and 
sure footedness. They must be free from all unsoundness and 
extremely well broken. 

CAVALRY HORSES 

71 Cavalry horses are lighter, quicker, and more compact than the 
draft breeds. The best type is from thoroughbred stock and 
has intelligence, speed and endurance. The Government is fos- 
tering the development of the cavalry horse industry, but in most 
farming sections, the heavy draft type is more profitable. 

PONIES 

186, 188 The cow ponies are horses of remarkable intelligence and en- 
durance. They must be very quick, active and are very sure 
footed, in order not only to perform the service required of 
them, but not to endanger the lives of their riders. They are 
usually about fifteen hands high and weigh from 850 to 1,100 
pounds. 

182 The ponies used by the Indians are usually; from thirteen and 
one-half to fifteen hands high, will weigh from 750 to 1,000 
pounds, are very tough and have a remarkable endurance. In- 
dians usually prefer the horses of broken colors, with a con- 
siderable amount of white, which makes them more attractive 
to them. 

MULES AND DONKEYS 

124 Cotton mules are very compact, and from fourteen and one-half 
to fifteen hands high, they are quick and active. 

311 Mules are very largely used in the coffee plantations, as they are 
very hardy, powerful and long lived. With inefficient labor they 
are the most useful of all work animals. 

340, 341 The burro or donkey is a diminutive type of the jacks and 
jennets used in the United States for mule production. They 
are patient, slow plodding animals capable of carrying more 
than their own weights on their backs. They are very sure 
footed, have great endurance, are bothered very little with flies 
and heat. 



SHEEP — GOATS — CHICKENS 295 



SHEEP 

173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep. The sheep in this view 
are of the mutton type as distinguished from the wool type and 
represent the breeds that are most generally used in the farm- 
ing districts of the United States ; they are short of leg, deep of 
body and wide of back. 

190, 589 Merino sheep on range. Range sheep are the most hardy and 
free from disease of all the sheep produced. They are the 
source of practically all the lambs which are marketed from the 
first of October to the first of May. 

GOATS 

411 Norway, 447 Switzerland. In Europe more than in America the 
goat is an important feature of animal husbandry. There the 
milking goats are preferred and this variety is rather abundant. 
In America the milking goat is practically unknown, except 
among the European population in our industrial centers. With 
us the goat is raised for its hair, known commercially as mohair, 
and for its meat, which forms a considerable item in some mar- 
kets. Texas raises more goats than any other State. 

HOGS 

172 The hogs used for pasturing rape in the corn belt of the United 
States are usually of the extreme lard or fat type, as distin- 
guished from the bacon type of hogs. 

183 Poland-China hogs originated in the United States, are repre- 
sentative of the fat or lard type, and noted for their early ma- 
turity, thickness of flesh, good disposition and their popularity 
throughout the corn belt. 

592 A hog which is not the result of careful breeding. 

CHICKENS 

56 White Leghorn hens in laying house. Poultry keeping is one of 
the most important phases of animal husbandry. The farm 
flocks of the country produce eggs and meat that equal in value 
some of our most important grain crops. Near the city markets 
the raising of chickens is a specialized industry. No other 
form of animal husbandry appeals so strongly to the back-to- 
the-lander as chicken raising. No farm business is so widely 
engaged in bv amateurs and none reports so large a number 
of failures. It is exacting work, requiring great regularity of 
effort and close attention to details. 
375 Fresh eggs are sold in every market. 

DUCKS AND GEESE 

216 Puget Sound. Wash. : 401 Holland. Ducks and geese form an 
important item in poultry production. They are raised mostly 



296 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

for the meat supply, but have considerable value also for egg? 
and feathers. They are water fowls and, if they have access 
to a stream or pond, will forage for a considerable part of their 
food supply. They are not so extensively raised as chickens 
although there are many large duck farms. 



23. FARM MANAGEMENT— FARM 
MACHINERY 

By MARTIN LUTHER FISHER, M.S. 

PROFESSOR OF CROP PRODUCTION AND FARM MANAGEMENT AND 

IN CHARGE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, 

LAFAYETTE, IND. 

Assisted by WM. AITKENHEAD, A.M., M.E. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF FARM MECHANICS, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, 
LAFAYETTE, IND. 

I. FARM MANAGEMENT 

Farm management deals with the handling of the farm and 
its equipment so as to produce farm products with the great- 
est profit and still maintain, or even increase, the productive- 
ness of the soil. 

Management is different from production. One may grow 
a big crop (production) but he may not dispose of it to the 
best advantage (management). One must decide what breeds 
of live stock he will keep and how many his farm will furnish 
feed for (management), but he must breed, feed, and care for 
them properly also (production). 

It is not sufficient that the crops grown and the live stock 
kept are profitable — they should be the most profitable of 
their kind. Producing milk and butter may be profitable, but 
keeping beef cattle and selling fattened animals may yield a 
larger profit. Corn, oats, and clover is a good rotation and 
may be profitable, but corn, wheat, and clover may yield a 
larger profit. 

Every good manager will study the conditions surrounding 
him in order that he may engage in the type of farming best 
adapted to the soil, climate, labor supply, and markets. If 
the soil and climate are favorable and the markets accessible, 
grain farming may pay better than grazing live stock. 

In the disposition of the crops it may pay better to sell them 
than to feed them even though the manure be returned to 
land. If the prices of corn and hogs are too near alike, one 
had better sell the corn rather than feed it and thereby have 
the risk of loss by disease as well as the loss of labor and the 
grain fed. In the studies made of a great many farms it has 

297 



298 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 

been found that neither the selling of all the crops nor the 
feeding of all of them gave the larger profits, but that where 
about 40% of the farm income came from the selling of the 
crop and the rest from the sale of live stock and live stock 
products the best results were obtained. It seems that it pays 
best to have some crop, or crops, to sell for cash. 

A great many people believe that the small farm is more 
profitable than the large one, but it has been shown many times 
that where the same type of farming is used on both farms 
the larger one is usually the better paying. A large income 
cannot be made from a small business. A large area furnishes 
the possibilities for big crops and a large number of market 
animals. 

The proper adjustment of equipment is important. The 
machinery, the teams, and the labor should be adapted to the 
size of the farm and the nature of the farming. A tractor is 
not profitable on a 40 acre farm but is quite likely to be so on 
a 200 acre area. Four-horse teams cannot be used to very 
good advantage on the small, but are decidedly useful on the 
large farms. Grain farming does not. require much hand 
labor but truck farming and gardening require hand work 
almost exclusively. 

A large labor income is what the good manager strives for. 
The labor income is found by subtracting all expenses of opera- 
tion from the gross income obtained by the sales of crops and 
live stock, and from this remainder take the interest on the 
investment, say at five per cent. In counting up expenses the 
cost of the family living is not included. Also, in determin- 
ing the labor cost, the labor done by members of the family 
and not paid for in dollars and cents should be calculated at 
a reasonable rate and added to the expenses. The labor in- 
come represents the farmer's salary. Beside this he has had 
the use of a house, garden and truck crops, butter, milk, eggs, 
and fruit — all of which has been found to amount to about 
ninety-five dollars per each adult member of the family. 

A. CHOOSING THE FARM 

In order to make a success at farming the farmer must give attention 
to the farm he selects. The farm ought to be well located for con- 
venience to roads, markets, and neighbors. The soil and climate must 
be adapted to the kind of farming which the farmer intends to follow. 



TILLED CROPS — GRAZING 299 

1. CONTOUR 
(a) Tilled Crops 

Perhaps the first thing to give attention to in selecting the farm is 

its contour. 

522, 488 Level or gently rolling land is easily plowed even by primi- 
tive equipment. 

178,179,332 On level land tractors can be used and thus save horse 
labor. 

180 This land is rolling, but not too much so to use the tractor effec- 
tively. 

I98, 209 Level fields make easy cultivation and the loose soil will not 
wash away in heavy rains. 

166 Level land is desirable for potatoes, 'sugar beets (198), corn (137) 
and all crops that need cultivation during the summer. 

149 Celery is always grown on level land, usually peat soils found in 
regions of old lake beds. 

333 Crops like sugar cane and rice (104, 527, 528) which need irriga- 
tion must be grown on level land. 

147, 199, 357 Level fields make easy harvesting, and usually produce the 
largest crops. 

218, 233 The large level fields of the West permit large machinery to 
be used. This cuts down the cost of production. 

408 A mountainous country may have many rich valleys, but the fields 
will be mere patches and labor saving machinery cannot be used 
advantageously. 

(b) Grazing 

38 This is beautiful scenery, but the land is almost too rough for till- 
age. It would be better for pasturing cattle or for growing 
orchards. 

388 This land is too hilly for any but hand work. L T nless labor is 
plentiful and cheap the cost of production runs high. It would 
be excellent pasture land, especially for sheep. 

301, 317, 589 In sections where grain and cultivated crops are not grown 
extensively level lands are also used for grazing. 

480 This level plain would probably return a larger profit if it were 
farmed in cultivated and grain crops. 

183 If the farmer wants to graze pigs he will select level land so that 
the crop grazed can be one in the regular rotation. 

(c) Fruit Growing 

44 While orchards are usually planted on rolling or hilly lands, level 
land is also well suited and is desirable when large sprayers are 
to be used. Rolling land is better for fruits than level land on 
account of the drainage offered for both air and rainfall. The 
air drainage prevents damage from frosts. 

390 Grape production is nearly always on hillsides, although level 
land is also used (319). 

108 Pineapples need irrigation, hence level land must be selected. 



300 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 

2. DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 

(a) Drainage 

147, 184 Good crops like these can be grown only on well-drained land. 

390 This hillside does not need drainage. The hillside in the distance 

shows the effect of erosion. 
180 Gently sloping lands tend to drain themselves naturally. 
161 Our rich prairie soils often have to be drained to make them 

highly productive. 
120 The delta lands are excellent for crops but must be drained. 

(b) Irrigation 

104 Irrigation is the opposite. of drainage. 

209 Results of irrigation, Arizona. 

237 Irrigating endless avenues of orange trees, Cal. 

528 The rice fields show how level the fields are in Japan. 

(c) Location 

178 Farm life is isolated at its best and in selecting a farm one 
should give attention to location as regards roads, neighbors, 
and markets. This farm seems to be far from any human 
habitation. 

180 This farm seems to be located near a traveled highway as there 
are several houses in the distance. 

408 In this mountainous country there is little outlet to market. 

147 The nearness of the house adds homelikeness to this farm. 
43 The railroad suggests opportunity for marketing the products of 
the farm. The hauling of crops long distances to the shipping 
point is expensive. 

108 The town in the distance suggests a marketing place as well as 
a shipping point. Unless the grower can ship and market his 
products easily and cheaply he is not encouraged to do his best. 

(d) The Soil 

178 Much depends on the soil for successful crop production. Notice 

how black and mellow this soil is. 

179 And see how nicely it works up when disked and harrowed. A 

good seed bed can be prepared without much labor in such soil. 

120 The delta soils and the alluvial soils in river bottoms are the most 
productive and everlasting that can be found. 

147, 184 Prairie soils are usually well adapted to producing grain. 

413 If all other conditions were favorable the rocky soil here would 
prevent crop production. 
38 Land like this is best for grass crops, like wheat, oats, and pas- 
ture. 

166 Potatoes do best on a sandy loam soil. 

149 Celery requires a rich muck or peaty soil. 

391 The hillside is terraced to prevent the slipping of the soil. 



TYPE OF FARMING 301 

(e) The Climate 

408, 413 After all the climate determines what crops can be grown. 
In this region of snow and ice one cannot expect to grow any 
delicate crops. 

136, 137, 147, 184 These are common scenes in the corn belt where con- 
ditions are most favorable for the production of the cereal crop. 

199 Grain can be raised in regions of scanty rainfall. 
44, 175, 85, 390 The temperate zone is also the region of large fruit 
productions. 

108 Pineapples, 294 Bananas, and 238 Oranges — grow in the sub- 
tropical or warm part of the temperate zone. 

258 Sugar cane grows best under tropical conditions. 

B. TYPE OF FARMING 

When a farmer gets most of his income from the grain which he 
grows and sells, he is said to be engaged in grain farming; when his 
income is mostly from fruits, he is engaged in fruit farming; and when 
his income is from several sources like grain, live stock, fruits, etc., no 
one of which yields over 40 per cent, of the income, he is said to be en- 
gaged in mixed farming, and so on, the type of farming being named 
according to the source of income. 

1. MIXED OR GENERAL FARMING 
In this type of farming, the farmer raises some of the grains, like 
corn, wheat, oats, rye, or barley; some of the kinds of live stock like 
horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs; produces hay; has fruits; sells milk, 
butter and eggs, grains, and live stock. He has an income from several 
sources. General farming is the most common type because it is the 
safest. All of the farmer's hope of an income is not based upon one 
source, but if one thing fails, it is likely that some other crop will suc- 
ceed. General farming requires a rather large investment. A good 
deal of land is necessary to run so many different enterprises and it 
takes a good many kinds of machinery, buildings, and other equipment 
to carry on the different lines of work. 

136, 137, 160 On the general farm the corn is usually cut and put in 
shock or in the silo. It is useful for winter feed. The corn- 
binder is a labor saving machine found in nearly all corn belt 
farms. 
172, 183 On the general farm in the corn belt many hogs are kept. 
These are usually pastured during the summer, because this is 
an economical way of producing growth. Rape is used quite 
extensively for such a pasture. Alfalfa is an ideal pasture for 
pigs. It produces rapid growth and economical gains. 
185 Feeding carload lots of steers is also common in the corn belt. 
181 This is another example of large machinery on the general farm. 
The general farmer usually makes a good deal of hay to feed 
his stock in the winter season. 



302 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 



2. LIVE STOCK FARMING 

Live stock farming requires large areas of land because pasture is 

needed. Of course, cattle and horses require more pasture land than 

pigs and sheep. 

127 The large cattle herds are in the West and on rather cheap land. 

186 On the ranges it usually takes four to ten acres of land to fur- 
nish pasturage enough for an animal ; in the eastern part of the 
United States about two acres arc enough. 

301 Large ranches of cattle are also found in the tropics. 

317 Argentina has vast areas of land good for growing alfalfa atrJ 
other pasturage. These cattle come into competition with cattle 
in the United States to some extent. 

3. PRODUCTION OF BREEDING STOCK 

On many farms the main source of income is from the sale of animals 
for breeding stock, that is, the sale of well-bred animals to start new 
herds and flocks. The fine stock business requires a big investment in 
animals, buildings, and care. They must be well housed, and carefully 
cared for by experienced men. If they can be sold for a good price 
the farmer will make money, but as work animals, producers of but- 
ter, milk, or wool, or whatever product is peculiar to the class of ani- 
mals, they are little better than high grade animals and these are not 
nearly so expensive to own and to care for. 

For various breeds of farm animals and comment regarding same 
see classification on Animal Husbandry. 

4. GRAIN FARMING 

In grain farming large areas of land are used and usually the same 
grain is grown year after year on the same land. This is contrary to 
good practice in rotation of crops. In some sections the crop is corn 
year after year. On river bottoms which are frequently renewed by 
the deposits from overflows this continuous cropping does not seem to 
do harm, but on lands not so renewed the practice soon shows de- 
creased yields. 
218, 233 The best examples of grain farming on a large scale is seen 

in the large fields of the West and Northwest. 
179, 199 On these large grain farms of the West it may be that no live 
stock at all is kept since all the work can be done by machinery, 
Farming without live stock is disastrous unless great care is 
taken in returning the straw and stubble and supplementing this 
with mineral fertilizers, like phosphorus and potassium. 
177 Here we see large stacks of straw from the threshers. In nearly 
every case this straw is burned instead of scattering it back 
over the land. Such farming is wasteful of the soil's fertility 
and is called exploitive. 



FRUIT FARMING — DAIRYING 303 



5. FRUIT FARMING 

Fruit growing is a form of specialized farming and is done in a more 
careful (intensive) way than grain and mixed farming. Fruit farm- 
ing requires special knowledge of the fruits that are grown. It also 
requires special apparatus for spraying, harvesting, and packing. 
44 The fruit grower has to fight insects and diseases. This is done 

hy spraying. 
175 To get good returns from the market the fruit must he graded 

and carefully packed. Honest packing helps to sell the crop. 
85 Most fruit growers give all their time to one or two kinds of 
fruit. There is a lot of work to do in spraying, pruning, thin- 
ning fruit, harvesting, packing, and marketing. 
237 Oranges are grown on a very large scale in California and Florida. 

Orange growing requires very special knowledge. 
236 This grower gives all his time to his grapes. 
390 This shows the extent of some of the vineyards and gives an idea 

of the labor necessary for maintenance. 
240 The climate of California is favorable for raising olives. The 
land under the trees is cultivated and fertilized. 

6. DAIRYING 
Dairying as a business requires special knowledge of how to feed 
for milk production and how to care for the milk in the way to make 
the best product. A rather large investment is required in cows, 
barns, and land for grazing purposes. In America it rarely pays to 
keep cows up all the time. Labor is too scarce and high-priced, and 
our land is cheap as compared with European dairy sections. Also, 
we cannot get high enough prices for the butter or milk to pay for 
keeping animals on the soiling system. 

159 This shows the large barns and valuable cows kept on this dairy 
farm. It is one of the most famous dairy farms in the United 
States. 
165 This shows a more expensive equipment. Notice the large silos. 
Silage is one of the most important feeds for dairy cows. An 
expensive equipment means that the profits are cut down by a 
big interest on the investment. 
57 It is a part of good management in a dairy to keep everything 
clean and sanitary. 

7. POULTRY 

Poultry does not require a very large investment to get large returns. 

Knowledge of how to care for hens so as to make them lay is necessary. 

56, 375 There are many breeds of poultry. Most people keep poultry 

mostly for the eggs which they lay. The White Leghorn is one 

of the best laying breeds. 

8. SPECIAL CROPS 
The risk of failure in special crops is greater than where general 
farming is carried on. If the season is unfavorable, the crop may 



304 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 

fail partly or entirely. If it is favorable, there may be so large a 
supply that the market is flooded and a very small price is obtained. 
When general, or diversified, farming is practiced it is likely that one 
or more crops will bring a good price, or make a good yield even if 
some do fail, Special crops always furnish a labor problem, either a 
large amount is required, or else it must be highly skilled. Also, the 
special crop usually does not furnish regular and steady employment. 
117 Cotton is the sole source of income for many farmers. It re- 
quires much hand labor at harvesting time. 
198 The sugar beet requires much hand labor for thinning and har- 
vesting. The beet crop is a very profitable one. The farmer is 
always assured a market for this crop, because it is contracted 
for before it is planted. 
47 The cantaloupe is in great demand in all cities and growers make 

good returns from their fields. 
149 Celery belongs to the group of truck crops. It requires a special 

soil like peat. 
108 The pineapple also requires a special soil as well as special knowl- 
edge of the crop. This field is fixed for irrigation, thus remov- 
ing any danger of loss by drouth. 
112 Tobacco is widely grown in some states. It requires almost con- 
stant attention to keep the tobacco worms (large caterpillars) 
from injuring the leaves. Special care is required in harvest- 
ing and curing. Large curing sheds are needed. 



C. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 

It is not enough that the farmer manage his farming operations 
skillfully. He must also market his products to the best advantage. 
Profits from farming quite largely depend upon selling at the right 
time. Successful selling depends a great deal upon the quality of the 
article and the way it is presented for sale. Staple articles like the 
grains, hay, and live stock are so widely used and so constantly in de- 
mand that one can always be sure of a market. There is never a time 
when these articles cannot be sold for a fair price. Such articles as 
fruits and vegetables, and sometimes butter and eggs, are frequently 
so abundant that they bring a very low price in the market — often so 
low that the grower is discouraged and ceases to produce them. 

Such products as hay, grains, and live stock do not receive much 
picking over and arranging before being marketed, but fruits, vegeta- 
bles, and eggs need to be carefully assorted and put in convenient 
containers before being offered for sale. Clean, fresh articles, uni- 
form in quality and size, displayed in attractive containers will always 
sell better than articles not so arranged. 

The staple articles are usually sold in large quantities, but the less 
staple ones are sold in small lots. Wheat, corn, and hay, etc., are 
sold in carload lots; live stock are sold by the head or pounds weight, 
but potatoes, apples, oranges, rhubarb, berries, etc., are usually sold 



QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT 305 

by the small lots. In the larger cities there are usually market places 
for displaying the products and making sales. Sometimes it is in the 
open along the curbstone ; other times it is in a covered place. 

7 Many of the large cities have market houses. 
423 This is a curbstone market for flowers. 
395 A market where vegetables are sold. Selling in the market 

usually nets the producer the largest possible return for his 

product. 
140 These animals have been shipped from the farms and will be sold 

to butchers. They are fine animals and will bring the highest 

price paid. 
124 The cotton farmer markets his crop as seed cotton, that is, the 

seed is still attached to the fiber. Many farmers lose a great 

deal because they do not take the seed back to their farms and 

use it as a fertilizer. 
339 This way of marketing milk may insure a fresh article, but it is 

wasteful of time, and time is money. 
396, 487 These methods are economical in that they use cheap labor 

and a small amount of equipment. 
375 Fresh eggs, vegetables, baskets for sale, Cork, Ireland. 

D. QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT 

The quality of the product produced has much to do with the 
farmer's profits. A large yield per acre of crops is a measure of his 
success, provided it has been produced without excess labor and expense. 
Well bred animals are able to return larger profits for their feed and 
care than scrub animals. The grade of product put on the market is 
an indication of the farmer's ability. 
160 The large ears indicate 60 or 70 bushels of corn to the acre, while 

the average yield is near 30 bushels. It took no more labor to 

grow the 60 bushels than to grow 30 bushels. 
357 Here is a 30 bushel yield of wheat, while the average yield is about 

14 bushels. Other things being equal, the man with the large 

yield makes the money. 
181 An alfalfa field will give three or more crops in a season, while 

clover will not give more than two and timothy only one. 
423 These flowers are the results of the florist's best efforts and will 

sell well. 
236 The fine large clusters shown here indicate a heavy yield and that 

will give the grower a good income for his labor. 
175 In any crop, and especially fruits, there is a considerable quantity 

of poor specimens. These should be graded out. 
112 This excellent crop will probably bring its grower more than a 

hundred dollars an acre. 
149 Notice how good a stand of plants is shown here. Truck grow- 
ing is intensive and expensive work and the farmer must have a 

good stand of plants. 
47 These cantaloupes will sell for a good price. 
198 This crop of sugar beets ought to bring its owner a hundred dol- 



306 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 

lars an acre. Twenty-five or thirty dollars will cover his ex- 
pense for production. 
117 See how thick the cotton balls are on the stalks. This field will 

make a bale to the acre. The average crop is a quarter of a 

bale. 
56 The kind of live stock one keeps and the way he keeps them 

shows something of a man's efficiency as a manager. Here is a 

lot of one of the best breeds of poultry and they are well and 

comfortably housed. 
57, 159, 165 These fine barns and well bred cows suggest successful 

dairy farming. 
358, 364, 370, 398 The very appearance of these animals tells of their 

good breeding. 
172, 183 Note the sleek, thrifty appearance of these pigs. 
185 It pays to feed crops to such animals as these. 
173 These are the kind of sheep that pay. They will produce good 

fleeces of wool and furnish a good lot of mutton of high quality 

besides. 

E. LABOR 

Labor is of two kinds: man labor and horse labor. The efficiency of 
labor is greatly affected by climate, skill of worker, and the use of ma- 
chinery. In the extremes of climate workers cannot do their best. In 
cold regions the worker is not comfortable and the amount of clothing 
worn hinders his movements; in hot regions the worker must go 
slowly or be overcome by the heat. Workers who have been trained 
to do any kind of work become skillful in performing it and thus quite 
efficient. Some workers know no trade and are not inclined to learn. 
Their labor is usually expensive because of their waste of time and 
materials in not knowing how to labor effectively. The use of improved 
machinery adds greatly to the amount of work which one man can do. 
In many cases one man does the work which formerly took several men 
to perform. A man with four horses to a gang plow, or driving a 
tractor, accomplishes just as much as two or more men used to do with 
less improved machinery. See Tools, Implements, and Farm Machinery. 

(a) Labor and Equipment 

357 A man with a self-binder can harvest as much wheat in a day as 
ten men used to cut with the cradle. 

136, 160 One man with the corn binder and two other men to put up 
shocks can handle as many acres in a day as five or six men 
working with corn knives and do it more easily. 

181 The scarcity of man laborers on farms has compelled farmers to 
buy improved machinery. The hay loader saves the labor of at 
least two men. 

527, 479, 497, 562 The primitive method of threshing shown here can- 
not be so complete as that shown in 177. Too much grain re- 
mains in the straw and is lost. But the cost of production is 



LABOR AND FIELD CROPS 307 

often less than that under modern methods, because of inexpen- 
sive equipment and low cost of labor. 

177 The work here is completely done but at a high cost of produc- 
tion. The machinery is expensive and the labor high-priced. A 
larger yield per acre must be obtained to offset these costs. 

138 A farm hand will take pride in doing his work when provided with 
a good team and equipment like the one shown here. Such a 
team is able to do a good day's work, too. 

561 One would not expect much pride to be taken in an outfit like 
this, nor expect to do much work in a day. 

549 The water buffalo is a homely animal, but he is the most efficient 
work animal for the rice farmer. 

178, 179, 180, 332 On large farms much horse labor has been done away 
with by using the tractor. One man driving a tractor does as 
much work as three or four men and as many three-horse 
teams. 

(b) Labor and Live Stock 

127, 186, 301 The grazing of cattle can be managed with very little 
labor. The labor cost per head is thus very small. 

190, 480, 589 The life of the shepherd is very lonesome and monoto- 
nous, but not at all laborious. With the help of a good dog one 
man cares for hundreds of sheep. 

183 Grazing hogs on alfalfa, or clover, is a cheap way of making 
pork. It requires little labor. 

(c) Labor and Field Crops 

528 Rice probably takes more hand labor than any other crop. 

105 Where a large number of workers are employed it is necessary 

to have an overseer or manager to direct the work. 
419 Sugar beets require hand labor for weeding and thinning. This 

makes the beet a costly crop to produce. 
112,297 Tobacco requires much hand labor. 
166 Potatoes require extra labor for picking up at harvesting time. 

117 Negro help is used almost entirely for cotton picking. 

118 Peanuts have to be hand picked and sorted. 

258 Sugar cane is handled mostly by man labor. The cultivation is 
performed by horse labor. 
47, 149 Truck growing requires mostly hand labor. Large areas can- 
not be handled by one man. 

147 Wheat is a good example of an extensive crop, that is, one that 
does not require much labor per acre farmed. The same is 
true of the hay crops like timothy and clover or alfalfa (181). 

(d) Labor and Fruit Crops 

44, 175, 236, 390 Fruit crops require a somewhat higher intelligence 
and skill than ordinary field crops. 
294, 302, 551 Tropical products are gathered entirely by hand. 



308 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 

(e) Skill in Laborers 

396, 487 Women and children often do a great deal of unskilled labor 

and are rated as cheap labor. 
485, 119 In many cities a great many workers are idle and do not seem 

to be concerned about their living. 
105 This is a good example of labor that has to be directed. With- 
out a " boss " not much work would be done. 
419 This is an illustration of how to get an important piece of work 

done by cheap labor. 
47 The harvesting of cantaloupes and other truck crops requires 

more or less intelligence to know when the crop is ready for 

marketing. 
136, 160, 177, 178, 180 The modern farmer needs to have skill in 

handling machinery. 

(f) Keeping Labor Employed 

130 One of the problems of the farmer is to furnish work which will 
keep him or his hired help busy the year around. The sugar- 
camp employs labor early in the spring before the field work can 
be done. 

403 Dairying requires work the year around. 
57 Where dairying is done on a large scale the milking is a part of 

the regular day's work. 
44, 175 Fruit growing requires work practically all year. The winter 
season is taken up with pruning, spraying and making boxes and 
barrels for packing and shipping. 

218 Grain farming furnishes labor only for short seasons. The re- 
mainder of the year there is little to do. 

185 Winter feeding of stock furnishes profitable work for the farmer 
and his hired help. 

II. TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND FARM MACHINERY 

As has been noted under Farm Management, the equipment of a 
farm has a great deal to do with the success or failure of its opera- 
tions. Every farmer should strive to have enough machinery and tools 
to carry on his work effectively. Oftentimes loss is caused by not 
having enough equipment to put out a crop in proper season, or to 
harvest it when ripe. 

On farms of large area and level surface, machinery of larsre capacity 
can be used to advantage, but on hilly farms and on small areas small 
sized machinery, or even hand tools, must be used. See Labor anrl 
Equipment. 

1. HAND TOOLS 

529 The oldest tool used for harvesting is the hand sickle. Less than 
an acre can he harvested in a day by one man. Consider how 
much more the farmer in 357 can do in a day. 

388 The rough surface makes hand tools necessary here. The grass 



TRANSPORTATION 309 

has been cut with a scythe (the scythe was the first improve- 
ment over the sickle) and now it is being raked into bunches 
with hand rakes. Note how different this is from 181. 
105 The hoe was the first cultivating tool and is still used on small 
areas. It is very effective for killing weeds and loosening the 
ground when vigorously used. 
47, 108, 175 The basket is a very useful piece of farm equipment. 
The average mature person can handle a basketful of almost 
any article grown on the farm. Besides the basket is useful to 
gather articles into larger piles. 

2. TRANSPORTATION 

449 The most primitive method of transportation is on the human 
back. This method is laborious, slow, and capable of moving 
only small articles. 

311,396,438,454,554 The two-wheeled vehicle drawn by one or more 
animals is a great improvement over the " burden bearing " 
method. 

124, 138 The most satisfactory means of transporting about the farm 
is the use of the two-horse wagon. 

147, 177 When the wagon box is replaced by a hay-rack, or " hay-lad- 
der," the wagon is useful in handling bulky material like hay, 
straw, or sheaves before they are threshed. 
47 The one-horse wagon is very convenient on the farm and espe- 
cially on a truck farm. 

162 The sled is useful in handling timber in the forest. 

3. TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS 
488, 522, 561 Very crude types of plows. Only in very rich soil and 

with plenty of hand labor could such plowing of the ground 

produce a crop. 
549 This harrow is much like a big, coarse comb and is adapted to 

the peculiar conditions under which the Filipino farmer works. 

178 Here we see the most modern and up-to-date method of breaking 

the ground. This tractor is pulling three plows and doing the 
work of three two-horse teams and doing it quicker. One man 
can operate all the machinery and is thus saving the time and 
wages of two other men. This outfit will plow about one acre 
an hour. 

179 It would take seven horses to draw the implements shown here 

and they would not be able to do it so quickly either. 

180 Tractor and manure spreader. The tractor is of special value in 

plowing sod. The manure spreader scatters the manure evenly 
over the ground. The manure spreader pulls hard and when it 
is loaded furnishes a heavy load for a team. 
332 The tractor is being used every place where large areas are to be 
prepared for crops. 



310 \GR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 

198 The two-horse cultivator is the most common tool for cultivating 
crops. 

4. HARVESTING MACHINERY 

357 With the self-binder one man and a team do the work of a team 
and five or six men. This is an American binder at work in 
England. See the name Piano on the grain shield. 

136 The corn binder is a much later invention than the wheat binder. 
The corn binder saves the labor of two or three men and a great 
deal of hard work. 

160 This binder has an elevator attached which carries the corn up 

and drops it on the wagon. This saves the labor of two men 

necessary to gather the corn from the ground when it is dropped 

as in 136. 
181 The hay loader is a great labor saver and also time saver. 
166 The potato digger is also a great labor saver. The hardest work 

here is the picking up of the potatoes. 

5. THRESHING MACHINERY 

527, 497 It takes a long time to thresh a crop of grain in this way. 
177 The primitive methods would thresh only a few bushels in a day, 

while an outfit like this will thresh more than a thousand and 

have the grain clean enough to go to market. 
218, 299 This machine harvests the heads of grain, threshes the grain, 

and drops it into sacks for the teams to haul to market. 
233 Here the horses are replaced by a steam engine. By using a 

tractor for preparing the seed bed and sowing the seed the grain 

farmer can handle large areas of farm land and not have a 

single horse. 

6. MISCELLANEOUS 

161 The power ditcher saves a great deal of man labor. Notice the 

peculiar wheels on this machine. They are called caterpillar 
wheels, and move the machine slowly. Such a machine and two 
men will dig the trench and lay the tile for 100 rods, three 
and a half feet deep, in a day. 
44 The power sprayer enables the orchardist to spray several hundred 
trees in a day. The sprayer is mounted on a wagon and the 
gasoline engine seen at the back forces the spray out of the 
nozzles. 



24. FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 

By A. E. WINSHIP, Litt.D., LL.D. 

LECTURER, EDITOR " JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON 

Marvelous changes in country life have occurred in recent 
years. These have made great progress toward retaining all 
that is best and most wholesome in rural living conditions and 
at the same time they have eliminated much of the drudgery 
and isolation of former days. A new era is at hand. For- 
tunately, most of the labor saving devices not only make the 
work more pleasant but also far more profitable so that the 
luxuries of yesterday are becoming the commonplaces of to- 
day. 

The country will never retain its boys and girls merely be- 
cause they can get a good start in life easier there than in the 
city, nor merely because it is more and more profitable to live 
in the country. Boys and girls must learn to love the coun- 
try in childhood and youth. They must be given real oppor- 
tunity for the joys of childhood in the country. Days of hard 
work must be limited as to hours. Life must not be all 
drudgery. 

Most men who flee from the country safety to city dangers 
are usually ticketed for the city by the poky life they lead 
in the country home. Nowhere is social live so easily made 
safe or so attractive as in the country, and no homes need 
the illustrated weekly and monthly magazines, music and other 
forms of pleasant recreation as do those in the country. 

The automobile is doing its full share to overcome the 
isolation of rural life. It is not without significance that our 
greatest farming states have the greatest number of automo- 
biles per thousand of population. The telephone, the trolley 
line and the daily mail delivery bring the farm into close touch 
with the community, the county and the outside world. The 
self binder, the hay loader and stacker, the silo, the cream 

3" 



312 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 

separator, the tractor and the whole range of modern im- 
provements make for efficiency and profit in farm life. 

With families of the same means a country home can be 
made infinitely more attractive than a city home. Nothing 
homey is possible in a large city for a family of small in- 
come, while in the country even with a small income a place 
can easily be made very attractive and homelike. Cleaning 
up and dressing up for the evening meal will greatly help to 
make a country home attractive. Be sure that the whole 
family eat the evening meal together and that all sit at the 
table until all are through. The evening should have some- 
thing especially attractive to the whole family. In summer 
time out-of-the-house social life should be promoted. 

Appreciation of nature is of first importance in the coun- 
try. With teeming life growing and unfolding on every hand, 
there is that intimate association with nature that lifts one's 
mind to the higher and nobler things of life. Nowhere else 
is right living and high thinking so easily attained as in farm 
life ; nowhere else is faith in human nature £0 significant. 

1. THE FARM HOME 

91 White House, 96 Washington's old home. The city at its best can 
show no lovelier homes than the country. Washington, when 
President, used to long for the time when he could return to 
his country home at Mount Vernon. 

37 Newburg, N. Y., 38 Hudson Valley, 262 Nova Scotia. The quiet 
beauty and prosperity of farm homes such as we see here is 
very attractive. There is no smoke, no dirt, no neighbor so close 
as to be almost in your own house. 

102 North Carolina. Can you imagine anything more beautiful than 
this view which can be seen from this farm home? Travelers 
come hundreds of miles to see it. 

367 Stirling Castle. The nobility of the British Isles, even the royal 
family, have homes in the country. 

362 Wordsworth's home, 372 Burns' cottage. Very many of the great 
poets have lived in the country and found their inspiration there. 

373 Highland home. This simple home in the Scotch Highlands seems 
to radiate contentment and cleanliness. 

113 Lincoln cabin. In the pioneer days of our country, this was a 
common kind of home and some people still think of a farm- 
house as a place without comfort or conveniences. 

147 Illinois. This kind of a farmhouse is far more frequently seen 
than the one above. 

181 W. J. Bryan's home. You would expect a great man's farm to be 
up-to-date. This one has a windmill which pumps water for 



INDEPENDENCE — CHILDREN 313 

use in the house and barns. Very many farmhouses now have 
bathrooms and all the sanitary appliances of the best cit\ 
homes. 



2. INDEPENDENCE 

The farmer is the most independent of men for his farm supplies 

most of his living. If he is thrifty and wise, his food is the freshest 

and best. 
57, 159, 364, 371 Dairy cattle. The country home is always sup- 
plied with milk and cream and fresh butter. 

183, 172 Hogs, 185. 358 Beef cattle. Very often the farmer raises and 
prepares his own meat. Home cured hams, home made sausage 
and such things are delicious indeed. 

141. 142, 143, 144 Packing house scenes. This kind of work in a 
crowded city cannot be half so pleasant nor so satisfactory as 
raising the live animals in the open, sunny fields. 
56 Poultry. Every farm can have its chickens and fresh eggs. 
83 School garden, 149 Celery field. Vegetables fresh from the gar- 
den have a much finer flavor than those which have stood in 
markets and stores. 

166 Digeing potatoes. A farmer seldom if ever buys potatoes. 
47 Cantaloupes, 85 Peaches, 175 Apples. It is very pleasant to pick 
ripe fruit and have it fresh every day. The farmhouse cellar 
is always rich with fruit stored away for winter. 

147 Oats. 184 Corn, 357 Wheat. The farmer also raises grain for his 
family bread and to feed his livestock. 

130 Tapping sugar maple. The Indians showed the first white settlers 
how to make maple sugar. A maple sugar camp in the woods 
in the early spring is a delightful place. 

137 Pumpkins. With his milk and eggs, the farmer must of course 

raise pumpkins for pie and for food for his cattle. 
85 Delaware. 112 Kentucky. 149 Michigan. 136 Indiana. 160, 161 
Wisconsin. 178, 179 South Dakota. Usually the farmer is his 
own boss. He is working for himself and his family and this 
adds zest to life. 



3. CHILDREN 

The country is an ideal place for children. 

72 Woodcock ; 359 Nightingale. They see the birds and animals in 
their native homes and learn their ways. 

2 Wild moose; 189 Wild elk; 359 Nightingale; 583 Gannets ; 584 Pen- 
guins. Sights of this kind are never seen in cities. 
83 City school gardens. Country children are not confined to a tiny 
patch of garden. 



314 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 

236 Vineyard, California. They share in the life of the whole farm. 
522 Chinese farm scene, 239 Ostrich farm. Children seem especially 

interested in little animals of all kinds. Calves, lambs, colts, as 

well as little ostriches, delight them. 
56 Chicken farm. Very many country children like to gather eggs 

and feed chickens. 
455 Palermo, Sicily. It seems too bad that the little children of the 

tenements cannot play with the flowers and birds in the sunny 

fields. 

4. SCIENCE 

Sometimes farmers as a class have been looked upon as ignorant and 

unprogressive. If that ever were true, it is not so today. It takes real 

mental vigor to be an up-to-date farmer. 

93 Overlooking Agricultural Department and grounds, Washington, 
D. C. In the Agricultural Department trained men are con- 
tinually studying and supervising experiments for the benefit 
of the people of the United States. 

172, 173 Ames, la. Several colleges are devoted to agriculture and 
in them men and women are especially taught the best methods 
of farming. Nearly all our colleges have courses in agricul- 
ture. 
83 Philadelphia. Because the tilling of the soil is necessary to the 
life of the people, and for its educational value, even the pub- 
lic schools are teaching it. 

235 Improving plants already known and developing new varieties 
that will be useful is an important interest of agricultural sci- 
ence today. 
44 Spraying apple trees. Spraying prevents disease and saves mil- 
lions of dollars' worth of fruit each year. 

175 Picking apples. It is nice to sort fragrant apples in the orchard. 

115 Phosphate, 180 Manure, 183 Nitrogen-fixing plants. The sci- 
entific farmer of today studies his soil and applies the kind of 
fertilizer needed. 
57, 159, 165, 364, 371 Dairy cows, 185, 358, 370 Beef cattle, 138, 398 
Draft horses, 172, 183 Hogs, 173 Sheep. The scientific farmer 
breeds his stock to suit the purposes he intends. Men enjoy 
greatly the owning and handling of fine stock. 

161 Draining land. Also the farmer must be somewhat of a civil 
engineer to drain his land where it is too wet, or to lay out his 
ditches so as to irrigate it if too dry. 

5. THE METHODS OF WORKING 

A large part of the farm work of the United States is done by ma- 
chinery. The farmer of today must be a mechanic. 
388 Hay making, Germany. Here we see the old way of making hay. 

When work has to be done by hand, only small fields can be 

cared for. 



METHODS OF WORKING 315 

181 Hay loader, Nebraska. This is the American way. It does away 
with the continuous lifting. 

561 Primitive plowing. This kind of plow has been in use in Egypt 
over 5000 years. There has been no improvement. 

522 Plowing, China. And this is a fair sample of plowing in China. 

488 Plowing, Russia. This plow may not last much longer, as Russia 
is importing great quantities of American farm machinery. 
These scenes show how our ancestors worked. 

178, 179, 180 Tractors. This is the way the great fields of the west- 
ern United States are plowed and prepared for seed. 
66, 67 Steel works. 178, 180 Farming. Driving the tractor in the 
open air and sunshine seems much pleasanter and more health- 
ful than the hot, dangerous iron mill. 

149 Celery, 68 Coke. These pictures show out-of-doors work but cer- 
tainly the farmer has the best of it. 

529 Cutting rice. All grain was harvested with a sickle in ancient 
times. It was very slow and laborious. The scythe and cradle 
seemed a wonderful invention. 

357 Harvesting wheat. The reaper and binder greatly lessen the 
work of the harvest. 

199 Harvesting barley. Reaping and threshing with one machine. 

147 Loading oats. Later they must be hauled to the barns to be 
threshed. 

527, 479, 497, 562 Primitive threshing. This way of threshing has 
been used by all primitive people. It must be pleasant, this lei- 
surely work in the open air, but it is very inefficient. 

177 Threshing wheat. The modern American way is efficient. See 
the mountain of straw that may be made into paper, or used 
to bed animals or perhaps be returned to the land as a fertilizer 
— unfortunately, at times it is burned. 

218, 233 Harvesting wheat. Sometimes reaping and threshing is done 
by one machine. Only the heads of the grain are cut off leav- 
ing the straw to be plowed under. 

184 Corn field, Kansas. There is no lovelier sight than a field of wav- 
ing corn. This grain makes a wonderful return to the planter. 

160, 136 Corn harvesting. Corn is now cut and cared for by machin- 
ery making the farmer's work much lighter and the returns 
much greater. 
47, 149 Market gardening is very profitable near large cities and 
very attractive work. 

419 Sugar beets. Weeding done by hand is very tiresome. Yet is it 
more so than shopwork? 

198 Cultivating beets, Colorado. Fortunately, in America, the culti- 
vator drawn by horses makes handwork less necessary. This 
man seems to be enjoying his work. 
44 Spraying apple orchard. Fruit raising is a most attractive kind 
of farm work. Along the lake shore where this picture was 



316 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 

taken the air is filled with the scent of fruit from cherry blos- 
som time till apples are gathered. 
85, 44, 175 Apple and peach orchards. Trees are no longer just let 
grow. They are now carefully attended and the perfect fruit 
fully repays the work. 

237 Oranges. Careful cultivation such as is shown in this picture is 

hard work. But in such a place with such a view to rest one's 
eyes, we find hard work in its pleasantest form. 

238 Oranges, 236 Grapes, 234 Almonds. One of the joys of farming 

lies in the fact that the farmer sees the finished product of his 
labor. 
11, 12, 41 Shoe manufacture. These people who are skilled work- 
men do only one thing day after day. The monotony is wear- 
ing. 

159, 165, 185, 358, 364, 370, 371 Well bred cattle. All over the civ- 
ilized world men take pride in breeding fine cattle. 
57, 46 Modern dairying. Can you even imagine what we should do 
without milk? Because the health of the whole people depends 
largely on the milk greatest care is taken that it may be health- 
ful. 

127, 186, 188 United States, 301 Jamaica, 589 Australia. Some men 
love the wild, free life of the cattle or horse ranch with the rid- 
ing and open air. 

173 Ames, la. 190 Idaho. Most farmers keep a few sheep. But in 
the west vast flocks containing thousands roam over the land. 
Tending the flocks was one of man's earliest occupations. The 
life out in the open under the skies brings man in close har- 
mony with nature and with nature's God. Shepherd peoples 
have been notably religious peoples. It was not without reason 
that the Good News came first to the shepherds tending their 
flocks on the plains of Bethlehem. 

104, 105 Rice, 112 Tobacco, 117 Cotton, 118 Peanuts. Negroes are 
especially adapted to the farm work in the south. Their orig- 
inal home was in the torrid zone and they thrive best in the 
warmer lands. 

104, 105, 528, 527, 529 Rice farming. These five views of rice growing 
present vastly different conditions. 

6. SOCIAL SIDE OF COUNTRY LIFE 

118 Arkansas; 113 Lincoln's cabin. Very many city people think of 
farmers as living in homes like these and under poor condi- 
tions. Nothing is farther from the truth today. 
45, 46, 47 New York. 56 New Jersey. 124 Texas. 165 Minnesota. 
180 Nebraska. 184, 185 Kansas. 177 North Dakota. 175 Mis- 
souri. These and many other views show that farmers are not 
necessarily poor. 

150, 151, 152 Automobile factories. An increasing number have auto- 
mobiles. These carry them so quickly to and from the city that 



SOCIAL SIDE OF COUNTRY LIFE 317 

farmers may be said to have all the best advantages of city and 

country. 
71 Pennsylvania. Good roads have done much to make country life 

easier. 
166 Minnesota. The harvesting of a crop brings the country people 

together. 
218, 233, 177 Threshing in the country is the occasion for exchange 

of work which unites the farmers and emphasizes community 

feeling. 
188, 186, 127 Men on big ranches become like a large family. 

210 Arizona. 198 Colorado. 236, 237 California. In irrigated districts 

the people live close together on small plats which are in- 
tensively cultivated with the most improved machinery. There 
is a community of interest not known in more favored sections. 
This often results in city improvements for the district such as 
the best of schools, electric lights, etc. 

211 New Mexico. 199 Colorado. 224, 225 Oregon. The sparsely 

settled western communities have a friendliness not known in 
the more densely populated regions. 

178, 179, 102, 103 Distance from cities causes the farmers to club to- 
gether in ordering goods from mail order houses. 

38 Hudson Valley. Farmers in a progressive community are usually 
organized into a grange for social and economical purposes. 

195 Yellowstone. 201 Colorado. 207, 208 Arizona. 221 Oregon. 
228, 229 Yosemite. After the crops are cared for very many 
farm people travel to see their country. 
93, 173 The Agricultural Department, and Agricultural Colleges 
send out men to hold meetings which are very enjoyable and 
profitable. They promote sociability and impart the knowledge 
that makes improved farm conditions possible. 

172, 183 Hogs. Pig clubs are likewise efficient in improving animal 
husbandry and at the same time through the club meetings pro- 
vide social opportunities. 

184 Corn field, Kans. 136 Harvesting corn. Corn clubs have given 
young people a greater interest in agriculture. They make foi 
improved farming conditions and afford many social occasions. 
Other products than corn are equally available for cl'ub work. 
Canning clubs also serve the double purpose of forwarding the 
work in Domestic Science and promoting sociability. 
96 George Washington after he had been through the Revolution and 
had served as President said he saw no way of doing more serv- 
ice for his country than by improving its agriculture. 



NATURE STUDY 

INTRODUCTION 
By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON 

NATURALIST AND AUTHOR, GREENWICH, CONN. FOUNDER AND 
CHIEF WOODCRAFT LEAGUE 

An ideal recreation is one which combines exercise of body, 
brain and senses with profit and interest that begets en- 
thusiasm which creates perseverance ; one which gives va- 
riety, outdoor activity and in which, above all things, teachers 
and scholars of all ages can go together, — both of them mak- 
ing discoveries. Surely Nature Study is the one, perhaps the 
only one, that completely fits these requirements, and whether 
we focus our power on animal or plant life, we find oppor- 
tunity for exercise and discovery that never loses its zest. 
For this is a well known secret : The naturalist never grows 
old. 

Because the eye gate is the main entrance for nature lore, 
we find our series of views of prime importance in making 
the acquaintance of the living things of our world. Your 
attitude will have much to do with your pleasure and your 
progress. 

If you wish to enjoy these pictures that set before you the 
ways of the animal world, begin by realizing that the animals 
and ourselves are very much alike ; that they have been 
evolving for ages, much as we have done, only we have gone 
farther on the road of mind growth ; our faculties are far 
beyond theirs, but their senses, in most cases, are much more 
acute than ours. 

The hearing of a dog or a fox is far better than that of a 
man, and the sense of smell of these creatures is as superior 
to that of man as the speed of an eagle is beyond that of a 
mud turtle. 

Man has, perhaps, better eyesight than a dog, but the birds 

318 



INTRODUCTION 319 

are as superior to man in this department as the dog is in 
smell sense. 

In touch sense man is well developed, better than most big 
animals, but is probably far inferior to such delicate things as 
mice and insects; the same remark applies to taste. There 
are yet other senses, less generally discussed, such as direction, 
electric sense, etc., in which the animals seem far better 
equipped than we ; and the sum total of such observations 
leaves us convinced that both we and our wild brothers have 
struggled along in the ages of evolution, each fighting the 
same battle, only we had the luck to find a higher trail and 
with that reach a plane of higher joy and larger sorrows. 

This thought of kinship enlarges our sympathies, but we 
should not obscure the fact of man's supremacy and his right 
of eminent domain. 

We are justified in using all the animal kingdom for our 
lives and comfort ; but every law of profit, logic, and goodness 
forbids the infliction of unnecessary cruelty or destruction. 

What America is suffering today from the wanton destruc- 
tion of birds and wild life, should be a lasting warning, and 
solemn admonition to repair at once the damage — restore 
again the bird life whose loss is robbing us of our forests, 
or an even larger calamity shall be our inevitable and national 
punishment. 

It was recognition of the close relationship of forests and 
animals that led to their being grouped together as Nature 
Study. An utter novice has no difficulty in telling you the 
difference between plants and animals ; a trained naturalist 
is not so sure. The difference between a man and an oak 
is very obvious, but lower down in the scale we have animals 
which sprout into two and we also have sensitive plants that 
behave like animals; so that where the dividing line is, if it 
exists at all, is a much discussed question. 

The animal, being nearer to man has usually first claim on 
the interest of the young naturalist ; but, strange to tell, I 
know of some men who began by studying birds and quad- 
rupeds and later drifted away to trees and plants; the reason 
given being : The latter are easier to study ; they do not run 
and hide when you wish to be with them, and they respond so 
much better to attempts to cultivate and propagate them. 



25. PLANTS AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 

By JOHN M. COULTER, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR AND HEAD DEPT. OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 

Assisted by GEORGE D. FULLER, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 

I. PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 

Plants are not scattered indiscriminately over the surface 
of the earth, but live together in definite communities called 
associations. For example, forests, meadows, swamps, are 
plant associations, each determined by the conditions for plant 
life. The factors whose combination determines what plants 
can live on a given area are water, temperature, soil, light, 
wind, etc. 

The most conspicuous plant association is the forest, in 
which trees are the dominant plants. The forest is called the 
climax type because in the history of every region there is a 
succession of plant associations, and the final association is 
some form of forest. A great many areas have not yet reached 
the forest stage. The kind of forest depends upon the region 
and its history. 

A. TROPICAL FORESTS 

Abundance of rain, a continuous growing season, and high tempera- 
ture give the richest and most luxuriant of forests. They have thin, 
broad evergreen leaves; the trees are often not large but of many di- 
verse kinds, growing crowded together with entangling vines and 
abundant herbaceous plants. 

255 Rich tropical forests are seen near the Panama Canal. 
592 New Guinea Islands. The even temperature of the south Pacific 

Ocean induces the development of rich evergreen forests. 
247 Panama. The rubber tree grows in such rich forests. Ferns 

growing perched on the trunks of palms are often found in 

tropical forests. 
259, 294, 570 Bananas are among the most useful trees of the tropical 

forests, as they supply materials for houses, baskets, and fo; 

food. Note their broad leaves. 
307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Some of the richest tropical forests in 

320 



PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 321 

the world are in Brazil. This view is in a somewhat drier re- 
gion, but the trees are still evergreen. 

B. SEMITROPICAL FORESTS 

586 Eucalyptus trees in Australia grow to a marvelous height. 

576, 577, 574 When the rainfall is not quite sufficient, or some other 

conditions are less favorable, a less luxuriant forest develops. 

Palms often grow in such a forest. 
575 Near Victoria Falls, Rhodesia, Africa. A moderate amount of 

rain in the tropics gives only a poor, often scrubby forest. 

C. GLOSSY-LEAVED FORESTS 

In lands with hot dry summers and cold wet winters, the ever- 
green trees often have hard shining leaves, such as those of the olive, 
orange, and tea. 
238 Oranges; 240, olive grove; 530, tea. 

D. TEMPERATE EVERGEEN FORESTS 

376,377 The climate is so mild in Killarney and neighboring parts of 
Ireland that many semitropical plants grow freely, and evergreen 
shrubs and vines are abundant. One reason for the name " Em- 
erald Isle " is to be found in these evergreen forests. 

E. CONIFER FORESTS 

The cone-bearing trees form some of the most valuable forests in the 
world. The most important kinds are the pines, spruces, and firs. 
They are evergreen, holding their small needle-like leaves for several 
vears. and grow in lands of cold winters and warm moist summers. 
229. 224. 215. 216 The richest conifer forests in the world are those of 
the Pacific Coast. They are composed of sequoias, Douglas fir, 
hemlock, tide water spruce, western cedar, and western larch. 
They produce more lumber per square mile than any other for- 
ests in the world. 

Mountain Forests 

195, 196. 222 Tn the mountains of the west the most abundant forests 

are often those composed of spruce and fir. 
221.409.427,445 Many mountain sides have rich forests of pine, 

spruce and fir. 

Pine Forests 

162, 221 Pine forests of the northern United States have been valuable 
but are being rapidly cut over. 

Southern Pine Forests 

107 The longleaf or Georgia pine has for several vears furnished the 
largest cut of pine lumber in the United States. See also Yel- 
low Pine Forests following. 



322 NATURE STUDY 

Northern Forests 

1,246 The forests of Maine, Alaska, and Canada are often largely 
made up of white spruce and balsam fir. 

Bigtree Forests 

229 The mountains of California have rich forests of pine and fir en- 
circling the giant Sequoias or " big trees." 

European Pine Forests 
388 Germany has carefully preserved and cared for her pine forests. 

Yellow Pine Forests 

191, 201, 228 On the slopes of many mountains of the United States 
yellow pine forms valuable but rather open forests. See also 
southern pine forests above. 

Pinon Forests 

201,206 Even the semi-arid slopes of the southwestern United States 
have scrub forests of nut, pine and junipers. 

Scrubby Forests 
200,201,228 Scrub oaks often mingle with pines in a scanty forest in 
dry regions. 

Mixed Forests , 

162 Evergreen and deciduous trees often form mixed forests. 

Petrified Forests 
206 Trees have turned to rock in the petrified forest of Arizona. The 
climate has evidently changed for at present the only trees grow- 
ing there are scrubby junipers. 

Zonation of Forests 
221, 228, 445 Forest zonation is shown on many mountains and high 

cliffs. Often the more open pine forests are at the base of the 

mountains and the richer spruce and fir forests above. 
213 When the mountain is in an arid region the forests are limited to 

the higher parts, where moisture is secured from clouds. 
408, 409 Sometimes only the lower parts of the mountain are covered 

with forests of spruce and fir. The snow remains too long upon 

the higher parts to allow trees to grow. 

Pioneer Forests 

39,51, 191 Forests often have a difficult time becoming established on 
rocky cliffs and hill sides. 

Arctic Forests 
413 As the Arctic circle is approached the trees become low and 
stunted because of the short season, the cold and the strong 
winds. 



PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 323 



F. DECIDUOUS FORESTS 

In the lands where there is a season too cold or too dry for trees to 
grow continuously, the forests shed their leaves at a certain time of the 
year, usually in the fall. 

Climax Forests 

38, 70, 72, 73, 114, 130, 169 Many rich forests of this type are found in 
the United States. They abound in beech, maple, oak, tulip, 
chestnut and other trees. 

Oak Forests 

361,369,379 Rich forests of oak, ash, and similar trees once covered 

much of the British Isles, and a few bits still remain. 
103 Oak forests are among the most useful. 

Flood Plain Forests 

470 The rich soil of flood plains often has forests of great luxuriance. 

Stream-side Forests 

2, 120, 173 Along the water's edge willows and alders are common 
trees. 

Japanese Forests 

525, 527, 529 The forests of Japan are very similar to those of the 
eastern United States. They contain considerable pine, spruce 
and fir. 

New Zealand Forests 

591 Those of New Zealand are rich, containing both conifers and 
broad-leaved trees. 

G. GRASSLANDS 

Natural grasslands are usually found in regions where the rainfall is 
not sufficient to produce forests. They naturally become the feeding 
grounds of herds of cattle, horses, and sheep. 

Prairies 

178,179.180.181 These are the richest of the grasslands and are 
abundantly developed in the central United States. 

Pastures 

73. 173, 183. 301, 480. 589 Their grasses are both native and introduced. 
127, 188, 190, 589 Scanty rainfall in mountainous regions makes the 
grasses short and scanty. 

Lawns and Parks 

37, 316. 482, 587 These show bv their close turf the effect of good 
care and constant water supply. 



324 NATURE STUDY 

Forest and Grassland 

38 This is the usual type of landscape in the eastern United States. 
Farther to the west, in the prairie regions, trees are usually 
found only along the banks of streams as in 182. 

II. DEFINITELY IDENTIFIED PLANTS 
A. TREES — CONIFERS 

162 (lower right), 265 White pine (Pinus strobus) has been the most 
valuable tree in North America, but few large forests of it re- 
main. 

191 (in valley), 200, 201 (on top of ridge), 228 (in valley). Yellow 
pine (Pinus pondcrosa), the most valuable pine tree of the 
western portions of the United States. 

107 Georgia pine (Pinus palustris), also called long-leaf pine. Now 
the most valuable pine in the United States, growing upon the 
sandy plains of the southeast and yielding lumber, resin, turpen- 
tine, and fiber (from needles). It is a yellow pine. 

388,407,418 Scotch pine (Pinus silvestris) , the most valuable pine of 
Europe. 

427,428,449 Mountain pine (Pinus montana), common on the high 
mountains of Europe. 
1,262 White spruce (Picca canadensis) a tree of the northern United 
States and Canada, valuable for lumber and for paper pulp. 

246 Alaska spruce (Picea sitchensis) also known as tide water spruce, 
a tall tree growing along the coast from Alaska to Washington. 

412 Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), one of the valuable trees of north- 
ern Europe. Often planted for ornament in America. 

162 (one tree in center) Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) , used for pulp 
wood. 

222,228 (on higher parts) Red fir (Abies magniiica) , a fine tall tree of 
western mountains. 

191,276 Mountain Balsam fir (Abies lasiocarpa), a tall slender tree 
common in the higher parts of the Rocky Mountains. 

216,224 Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), also called red fir and 
Oregon pine, is the most valuable and one of the largest trees on 
the Pacific coast. 

206 Arizona juniper (Juniperus monosperma), a small scrubby tree of 
the arid southwest of the United States. 

229 Bigtree (Sequoia gigantea), the largest and oldest tree in Amer- 
ica. It attains an age of from 1000 to 2000 years, a height of 
300 feet, and a diameter of 35 feet. 

B. TREES — BROAD-LEAVED 
249,259,551,574 Cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera), a tree that supplies 
building material (stems), thatch (leaves), fiber (husk of nut) 
food, and drink (nuts). It is widespread in tropical lands. 






PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 325 

556,566,567 Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a most valuable tree, 
furnishing food in many semi-desert parts of Asia and Africa. 

294,297,302 Banana (Musa sapientum), a very broad-leaved tropical 
fruit tree. 

552,553 Manila hemp (Musa textilis), a broad-leaved tree of the 
banana family, whose leaves and petioles yield a valuable fiber. 

586 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), an Australian tree sometimes 
400 feet high. 

120, 173 Black willow (Salix nigra), a common tree along stream bor- 
ders. 

182 Cottonwood (Populus deltoides), grown along streams even in 
prairies and desert regions. 

466,489 Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra italica), a tall tree of re- 
markably upright growth, a native of Europe but much planted 
in America. 
1, 162 Paper or canoe birch (Bctula papyrifcra) , a hardy tree witli 
papery white bark. 263 shows the bark of this tree used by 
Indians for tent covering. 
10,37,71,96 American elm (Ulmus americana). 

146 White Oak (Quercus alba) in background. 

537,538 Silk mulberry (Morus alba), a small tree cultivated for its 
leaves, which are fed to silk worms. 
70 Chestnut (Castanea dentata). It often produces shoots from the 
base of the trunk. 

130 Sugar maple (Acer saccliarum), valuable both for wood and for 
the production of sugar. 

379 Box tree (Buxus sempcnnrens), a small tree with glossy ever- 
green leaves. Often trimmed into ornamental shapes and used in 
hedges. 

534 Flowering cherry (Prunus pseudo-cerasus), much grown for or- 
namental purposes in Japan. 

259 The papaw (Carica papaya), a very broad-leaved tree grown in 
many tropical lands for its fruit. 

240 The olive (Olca europaca), an evergreen tree of the Mediterra- 
nean region. 

237,238,437 The orange (Citrus aurantium) , a tree with glossy ever- 
green leaves, valuable for ornamental purposes and for its 
fruit. 

209 The mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) is one of the largest trees of 

the Arizona deserts. It belongs to the pea family. 
44 The apple (Pyrus mains) is usually seen in orchards only. 
85 The peach (Prunus persica). 

234 The almond (Prunus amygdalus). 

303 Cacao tree (Thcobroma cacao). 

302 The coffee (Coffea arabica) is a small tree with evergreen leaves. 

530 Tea (Thea sinensis) is from a small evergreen tree. 

209 Giant cactus (Cereus giganteus), the giant of the deserts, growing 
to a height of 35 feet. 



326 NATURE STUDY 



C. SHRUBS 

355 European privet (Ligustrum vulgare) much grown for hedges. 
188, 190 Sage brush {Artemisia tridentata). 

209 Creosote bush (Coinllea mcxicano), one of the small shrubs com- 
mon in the deserts of the southwestern United States. 

D. VINES 

37 Boston ivy (Psedera tricuspidata) , a hardy vine from Japan, much 
grown in Boston and the New England States. 

354,362,376 English ivy (Hedcra helix) grows abundantly upon the 
houses and castles of the British Isles. The ivy of litera- 
ture. 

236,319,390 Grape {Vitis vinifera), excellent as an ornamental vine as 
well as for its fruit. 

137 Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo). 
47 Cantaloupe (Cucumis melo). 

359 Gill-over-the-ground (Nepeta glechoma). 

E. HERBS 

37,285,287 Century plant (Agave am eric ana) . 

91 Cannas (Comma glauca, C. annaei, and hybrids). 
258,333 Sugarcane (S ac char um off. cinarum). 
136,184 Corn (Zea mays). 
172 Rape (Brassica campestris). 
297, 112 Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). 
198, 270, 419 Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris). 
102 Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) . 

III. CONDITIONS UNFAVORABLE FOR PLANT 

LIFE 

Although vegetation covers most of the earth's surface, there are cer- 
tain areas in which plants grow with difficulty. The result is a scanty 
vegetation made up of a few kinds of plants that are specially fitted to 
endure the hard conditions. The principal unfavorable conditions ap- 
pear in the following classification. 

A. TOO DRY 
Deserts 

209, 563, 565 Where rain seldom falls only a few hardy plants survive. 

Semi-deserts 

190.200.201,495 With scanty rainfall a scantv vegetation results. 
Small trees scattered widely over the soil use all the meager 
rainfall. 



PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 327 

Dwarf Trees 

535 The Japanese by planting trees in pots and limiting the supply of 
water so that life is barely maintained, produce curious dwarf 
trees. Individuals 12-18 inches high may be a century old. 

B. TOO WET 
161 Too much water is almost as bad as too little, but drainage will 
improve this condition. 

C. TOO COLD 

Arctic Snows 

243, 342, 345, 346 Near the poles the continuous cold excludes all plants. 

Alpine Deserts 

219, 276, 279, 322, 323, 440, 441, 448 Where the perpetual snow covers the 
mountain tops plants are absent. 

Arctic Forests 

244, 413 The cold winds make low shrubbery forests. 

Ice Burden 

50, 191 Snow and ice crush trees and break off branches. 

D. TOO MUCH INJURIOUS GAS 

62,63,68,187 Smelters, coke ovens, and other industrial plants often 
send forth great volumes of fumes and gases. These are de- 
structive to vegetation and wasteful as well, resulting in the loss 
of millions of dollars' worth of valuable chemicals that might be 
reclaimed by proper methods. 
453, 545 Volcanoes emit great volumes of poisonous gas. 

City Conditions 

6, 26, 27, 48, 61 The soil in the city is often too dry as the water is 
carried off in sewers. The houses crowd out plants, and smoke 
and gases destroy the foliage. 

E. TOO LITTLE SOIL 

Rock Plants 

189, 208 Rocks permit few plants except mosses and lichens to flourish. 
A few find a foothold in cracks and crevices and gradually form 
more soil. 

Pioneer Plants 

197, 191, 51 Forests slowly conquer steep cliffs and hillsides, but the 
pioneers have a hard struggle. 



328 NATURE STUDY 

On Ruins 

478, 284 As stone houses, castles and other stone structures fall to 
ruins, plants find resting places in shelves and crevices. They 
aid in breaking up the stones, forming soil and crumbling the 
building to the ground. 

F. TOO UNSTABLE SOIL 
Stream Erosion 

191, 197, 208 As rivers cut away their banks the vegetation is destroyed. 
Plants find the crumbling soil precarious footing. 

Volcanic Hills 

545, 453 The ash and cinders from volcanic action make plant life diffi- 
cult and uncertain. 

Sand Dunes 

223 The wind moves the sand so readily that no plants can live. 

IV. WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS 

Probably the greatest of all dangers to plants is the lack of sufficient 
water. For deficiency in supply see under Conditions Unfavorable for 
Plant Life. The use and economy of the water supply is largely de- 
termined by the foliage condition of the plant. 

Broad thin leaves lose water rapidly. Such leaves are seen in : 160, 
Corn; 294, 297, 302, Bananas; 258, 333, Sugar cane; 259, Papaw; 172, 
Rape. See under Tropical Forest. 

237, 238, 530 In lands with hot dry summers and cool winters the leaves 
are often evergreen, but have glossy surfaces which prevent the 
rapid loss of water. 
224, 388, 591 When the winters are cold, such evergreen leaves are re- 
duced in size to mere needles. 
249,259,301,574 Palms have large leaves, but they have a hard surface 
which retains water well. 
10, 427 In lands with cold winters, many trees conserve their water 
by shedding their leaves in the autumn. See also under De- 
ciduous Forests. 
209 Desert trees often retain their leaves only during a few weeks 

when moisture is most abundant. 
188, 190 Sometimes, as in the case of the sage brush, the small leaves 
which constitute the foliage are covered with a thick coating of 
hairs that helps them to retain the water. 
209. 235 The greatest economy of water in perennial plants is seen in 
cacti, with no leaves and thick juicy stems. Some will live for 
more than a year upon the stored water they contain. 
586 The eucalyptus is planted in damp malarial regions. It takes up 
and gives off great quantities of water. 



PLANT AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 329 

V. LIGHT RELATION OF LEAVES 

From the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and the water of the soil 
green plants are continually making food. The energy for this manu- 
facture comes from the sunlight, and to obtain this sunlight many dif- 
ferences in leaf size and leaf arrangement show their success by the 
large areas of the earth's surface they cover. 

294, 297, 302, Bananas; 112, 297, Tobacco; 259, Papaw ; 249, 259, 301, 574, 
556, Palms. Large broad leaves work well where water is 

abundant. 
247, 255, 592 Broad thin leaves seen in tropical forests work efficiently 

every day of the year. 
237, 238, 437 Hard glossy leaves, being able to cling to the trees during 

the hot summers, are often very efficient. 
169, 87, 70 Some trees, although only retaining their leaves during the 

summer, have large broad ones and so possess a good working 

capacity. 
72 The fallen leaves decay and furnish food for the trees. 
182, 537, 120 Some deciduous trees have smaller leaves but still thrive. 
224, 229, 591 The conifers have small needle-shaped leaves, but by re- 
taining them for years do efficient work. 
161, 173, 175, etc. The long ribbon-like leaves of the grasses cover vast 

areas of the earth's surface, testifying to their success. See 

Grasslands. 
160, 258, 333 Corn and sugar cane expose great areas of green leaf 

surface. 
181, 183,317 Alfalfa is successful with innumerable small leaves. 
571 Rosettes of leaves seen in a favorite type of arrangement. 
556, 564, 566, 574 Rosettes on the top of long stems are probably still 

more effective. 
47 Cantaloupes. Mosaics over the ground are formed by many vines. 
37, 354, 362, 376 Mosaics upon walls give climbers good leaf exposure. 
224, 388, 591 Small leaves of pine and other conifers let light pass 

through to reach those below. 
209, 235 Cacti have usually no leaves, the leaf work being done by the 

fleshy stems. 

VI. FOOD STORAGE 

The manufacture of food by the leaves of green plants not only pro- 
vides for the growth of the plant itself, but there is frequently a sur- 
plus supply stored in some of its organs. This food takes various forms- 
285, 287 Water storage occurs in thick leaves, such as those of the 

century plant, or in the stems of cacti (209, 235). 
551 Water storage also occurs in cocoanuts and in juicy fruits. See 
Fruits. 

Sugar is stored in fruits (which see) and also in the sugar maple 
130 Sugar maple ; 198, 270, 419, Sugar beets ; 258, 333, Sugar cane. 

Starch storage is most abundant in cereals and grains (which see). 



330 NATURE STUDY 

166 Starch also abounds in the potato. 

Protein storage is most abundant in nuts, such as: Peanut, 118; Al- 
mond, 234 ; also in beans, 562. 

Oil abounds in: 480, 495, Olive; 118, Peanut; 303, Cocoanut. 

Drugs and flavors are stored in: 112, 297, Tobacco; 530, Tea; 30 1, 
Coffee; 303, Chocolate; 259, Papaw (pepsin); 108, Pineapple (pepsip 1 * ; 
586, Eucalyptus trees. 

VII. ECONOMIC PLANTS 

See classifications on Production and Manufacturing, and Farn 
Crops, Horticulture and Textiles and Clothing. 

VIII. PLANTS FOR ORNAMENT 

For classication dealing with plants for ornament see Horticulture. 



26. ANIMALS 

By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON 

NATURALIST AND AUTHOR, GREENWICH, CONN. FOUNDER AND 
CHIEF WOODCRAFT LEAGUE 

I. HORSES 

We do not know whether the horse was first used as a saddle beast 
or as a draft animal ; but probably it served as a pack animal before 
it was either of the others. The pack of camp stuff was naturally fol- 
lowed by the human rider, and later some rude kind of drag was in- 
vented. Just as the travois of our Indians was evolved from the tepee 
poles being hauled from camp to camp. But men must have had roads 
before they had wheel vehicles, and that was a long time later. 

In the most primitive form of agriculture the donkey and the ox are 
found in service, but one is too small and the other too slow for the 
best results. It is a remarkable fact that agriculture cannot flourish 
without the horse. 

(A) DRAFT AND FARM HORSES 

It is difficult to believe that the magnificent elephantine draft horses 
are from the same stock as the Shetland pony; but it is generally con- 
ceded that such is the case, and it illustrates what can be done by se- 
lective breeding. 

138 A champion team of Percheron draft horses. 

398 Belgian draft horses, world champion in foreground. 

71 A fine 6-horse Percheron team. 

218 A 20-horse team on combined reaper and thresher. 

166 Three fine 4-horse teams on Minnesota farm. 

147 A good road and farm team. 

149 A good truck farm team. 

136 Percheron horses excellent for heavy work. 

180 Horses still necessary on modern farm. 
42 Percheron draft horses. 

198 A good farm team, Colorado. 
162 Hauling logs, Minnesota Pineries. 

181 Horses hauling hay, Nebraska. 

177 Horses hauling grain to thresher, North Dakota. 

207 Horses pulling cultivators. 

226 Teams used to haul in salmon nets. 

357 Harvesting wheat, England. 

488 Russian peasant plowing. 

497 Horses treading out grain, Palestine. 

331 



332 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 



(B) ROAD AND CARRIAGE HORSES 

195 Stage teams, Yellowstone National Park. 

221 Typical stagecoach horses on way to Mt. Hood. 

312 Carriage horses, Montevideo, Uruguay. 

320 Two wheeled gig, Argentina, South America. 

39 Hansom, best type of two wheeled gig, London. 

383 Cab drivers, Berlin, Germany. 



(C) SADDLE HORSES 

The proudest place of all for the horse is as a saddle beast. Fashions 
may change, breeds may come and go, or other means of traction win a 
place ; but the saddle horse is always in fashion. 

The best saddle horses are of Arabian blood and there is some reason 
for believing that these are of a different wild stock from the heavy 
draft horse. The readiness of man to accept the horse is shown in the 
history of our own Indians. Two hundred years ago they had no horses, 
and within fifty years of getting them, they so gloried in their steeds 
that they pretended the horse had always been among them and was a 
special gift of the Great Spirit in the beginning. 

The cowboy is the heir to the Indian range, and the pony is as essen- 
tial to him as the steed to the Arab or the reindeer to the Lapp. 

494 A sheik and his faithful Arab steed, Syria. 

193 Government officer on saddle horse, Yellowstone Park. 

464 Hungarian officer, Andrassy Strasse, Budapest. 

585 Mounted British officers reviewing troops, Sydney. 

333 South American farmers inspecting work on ranch. 

182, 204 Indians on horseback. 

188 Cowboys roping their mounts in corral, Montana. 

127 Cowboys riding on the range. 

186 Cowboy and horse holding a lassoed cow. 



II. MULES AND DONKEYS 

(A) MULES 

There is an increase of mules as we enter the hotter regions of agri- 
culture. Experience shows the mule to be tougher than the horse in 
a southern climate and much less easily prostrated by heat — no doubt 
because its other ancestor, the donkey, is a native of the hot tropical 
deserts of the East. 



BEEF CATTLE — DAIRY CATTLE 333 

175 Mule team in Mo.; 124 Texas; 249 Panama; 294 Cent. America; 
311 Brazil; 438 Spain; 479 Greece. 

(B) DONKEYS 

The patient, plodding, sturdy, sand-loving, water-hating donkey is 
seen in his native best in the following group. (Animals like these 
are also called asses and sometimes burros.) 

574 Donkeys in pasture ; 378, 522 as draft animal ; 566, 557 as saddle 
animal ; 560, 524, 341 as pack animal. 

III. CATTLE 

BEEF, DAIRY AND DRAFT 

A thousand years ago, there existed in Europe the kind of wild cat- 
tle known as urns or wild ox. These are represented today, first by 
the herd of wild cattle preserved in Chillingham Park, second by the 
domestic breeds found now in every quarter of the globe. There can 
be no question that all of our different common strains are descendants 
from the wild ox of Caesar's time; though there are reasons for be- 
lieving that to a slight extent one or two other breeds have been mixed 
in with it. 

The habits of the Chillingham cattle — as I know to my discomfort, 
for once there they put me in peril of my life — are precisely like those 
of the wild cattle of Texas, their blood kin. 

Owing to selective breeding, these wild cattle of Chillingham are 
now white with red ears and red knees. Yet we often see this com- 
bination on the plains of Texas. On the other hand, we often see a 
dun or brown Texan with black muzzle or legs and whitish under 
parts. This probably was the color of the original wild bull that the 
classic author describes as such a formidable monster. 

(A) Beef Cattle 

Wherever the white man has established himself, he has taken with 
him the horse, the cow, the dog, the cat, the hen, the rat, the mouse 
and the measles ; and by much experiment and selective breeding, 
has in each new climate produced a breed of cattle fitted to the new 
environment. 

There are three distinct kinds of service that the ox kind can render 

to man. First, as a range animal for beef and hides ; second, as a dairy 

animal, producing chiefly milk and butter ; third, as a draft animal. 

370 Aberdeen Angus; 317 Shorthorns; 358, 127, 185 Herefords ; 186 

range cattle (mixed); 301 Spanish cattle; 140 Stock market, 

Chicago. 

(B) Dairy Cattle 

There are many breeds claiming notice among the dairy kinds, from 
the Holstein, yielding 20 to 30 quarts of thin milk per day, to the Jersey, 
whose 8 or 10 quarts per day is as rich as cream, in some cases, has 



334 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 

produced 3 lbs. of butter per day. A combination of the two qualities 
is reached in some measure by the famous Ayrshire cow from the 
land of Bobbie Burns. 

159,165,57,403 Holstein-Fresian ; 364 Jersey; 371 Ayrshire; 356 
Dairy shorthorn ; 591 Mixed. 

(C) Draft Cattle 

There are certain great advantages in using cattle as draft animals ; 
for example, their strength, their fearlessness in soft ground, their 
simplicity of diet, and the possibility of their being a food supply when 
too old for work, etc., to all of which the chief disadvantageous offset 
is their slowness. 

C oiiDii on Ox 
580 Oxen in S. Africa; 298 Cuba; 561 Egypt; 337 S. America; 497 
Palestine; 454 Ox and horse, Italy. 

Buffalo 
549 Philippines; 491 Syria; 474 Constantinople. 

Humped Cattle of Asia 
562 Egypt; 548 Philippines. 

IV. BISON AND BUFFALO' 

If we follow the classification of Lydekker, the living cattle kind 
may be divided into four groups ; namely, 

The Common Ox Kind or Round-Horned Cattle, discussed in the 
previous chapter. 

Gaurs, Flat-Horned or Jungle Cattle, found in tropical Asia. 

Bisons, or Woolly Round-Horned Cattle, including the American 
Buffalo and its European cousin the Bison or Aurochs. 

Buffaloes Proper, with rough angular horns and nearly naked skin. 

The famous American bison (commonly called buffalo) has never 
been successfully tamed. Its temper is always morose and the crea- 
ture is subject to sudden fits of murderous rage. This is therefore 
one of the few in the cattle family that decline to become servants of 
man; we may kill him, but not enslave him. 
232 Famous American bison, almost extinct. 
549 Buffalo harrowing rice fields near Manila. 
491 Shoeing a buffalo in a street of Tarsus, Syria. 
474 European buffalo in yoke, Constantinople. 

V. SHEEP AND GOATS 

They have divided hoofs and chew a cud as oxen and cows do. 
There is little doubt that the dog was the first wild animal to be do- 
mesticated by man ; but it seems likely that sheep came soon after, 
and as early as the days of Abel, the flocks of sheep were established as 



CAMELS AND LLAMA 335 

a form of wealth. We can trace with certainty the origin of all our 
other domestic animals except the dog, the sheep and the goat. The 
sheep especially has been puzzling, for it has been so long in our 
folds and has been so completely modified by selective breeding that it 
no longer resembles any wild sheep that we know of. 

A. SHEEP 

When we examine the bighorn sheep of America, or its larger 
kinsman the bighorn of Europe, we find, as in most animals, a fine 
wool next the skin, but quite hidden by the long coarse bristles. It 
is believed that ages of selective breeding have worked out the bristles 
and developed the under wool until it is as we see it in our finest 
long woolled sheep today. 
190,480,589 Merino; 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold. 

B. GOATS 

When Americans learn a little better the lessons of thrift in daily 
life, they may adopt the goat as the poor man's cow. Such is the solu- 
tion that many a family in Norway, Switzerland and other European 
countries has adopted, for the goat is easily managed and fed. Its 
milk is especially acceptable for infants, and it is doubtful if any of 
our animals yield as high a percentage of profit as the lively goat, so 
valued abroad and so little understood with us. 
411 Milking goats, Norway; 447 Goats, Switzerland. 

VI. CAMELS AND LLAMA 

Although there are no camels in North America, it is generally con- 
ceded now that the camel family originated on our continent and that 
a division took place so that the original home near California was 
broken up. One branch emigrated to Asia to father the humped 
camels of today, while the other went south to South America, where 
they are now represented by the tame llama, the tame alpaca, the wild 
guanaco and the wild vicuna. 

The branch that went to Asia originally inhabited the high, bleak, 
cold steppes of Central Asia; where, according to Prejevalsky, the 
wild race still survives. 

There are two well marked species of camel ; first, the one-humped, 
well known in Arabia, which some believe to be its native land. When 
bred for speed, this one-humped camel is the " dromedary " which is 
credited with traveling ten miles an hour and covering one hundred 
miles a day. 

The other species of camel is the Bactrian, or woolly camel of 
Central Asia. On account of its double hump it is called the two- 
humped camel, or, as described by a sailor, it is the " two masted 
ship of the desert." Of course, the masts are not masts at all, but 
magazines. The camel stores up fat in his hump when living is good 
and lives on his accumulated capital when food is scarce, also, by 



336 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 

means of a storage plant in his stomach, he can continue for several 
days without drinking. 

The llama was the only domesticated hoofed animal in America be- 
fore the white man came. It served as wool bearer and burden bearer, 
as well as for meat. In our zoological gardens it is noted for its readi- 
ness to spit in the face of any who annoy it. 
567 Caravan leaving oasis in Egypt. 
564, 565 Camels in Egypt; 504 Caravan, Jaipur, India. 
518 Bactrian camels in Peking, China. 
335 A llama near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. 

VII. DEER 

Deer are like cattle, sheep and camels, cud-chewing animals with di- 
vided hoofs. Their horns (antlers) are shed and renewed annually. 
There are numerous species and in many places they are an important 
source of food for man and the larger carnivorous animals. The flesh 
of the deer is called venison. The reindeer is an indispensable do- 
mestic animal in some northern regions. Some deer as the moose and 
elk attain a large size, others may not exceed 18 inches in height. 
The magnificent specimen of American elk shown in 189 is truly wild 
and was secured by careful stalking with the camera. 
413 Reindeer herd, Lapland; 2 Moose; 189 Elk. 

VIII. DOG 

The dog is a carnivorous animal of the family Canidae, kept in a 
domesticated state by man since prehistoric times until it has become 
the most intelligent of beasts. It is undoubtedly a modified descend- 
ant of the wild species of the genus Canis among which are the com- 
mon wolf and jackal. 

The dog has figured as man's companion in three wholly different 
roles; first, as an aid in the chase. This was his earliest and his 
highest modern use. His second job was as a beast of burden, a 
draft animal, and his last as companion and watchman and guardian 
of his flocks. 

279 Eskimo dog team, Hopedale, Labrador. 
246 Gold miners and dog team, Alaska. 
396 Dog drawing milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 
190, 480 Shepherd dogs with the flocks. 
204, 263 Faithful guardian of American Indians. 
395, 490 Dog, companion to man in all walks of life. 
529 The pet dog of a Japanese rice farmer. 

IX. HOGS 

When I was a small boy, I reasoned out for myself that a pig and 
an elephant must be cousins. For the pig is naked or bristly and thick- 



HIPPOPOTAMI — ELEPHANTS 337 

skinned ; he has hoofs, he grows tusks and the end of his snout is mus- 
cular, sensitive and movable. Yes, he is surely a pachyderm ; and 
when I found that he really was in a large sense so classed, I felt proud 
and happy. 

But our views illustrate the hog not as a zoological exhibit, but one 
of the most important food products of the United States. There is 
not the least doubt that the wise men who forbade Jew and Turk to 
eat pork did it knowing that thereby they would save these people from 
much dreadful disease. 

But we live in a different time. Sanitation is better understood 
now. Modern methods of cookery put the terrible trichinae beyond the 
possibility of harm ; and we believe that robbed of pork America would 
today take a distinct backward economic step and gain nothing hy- 
gienic or ethical to offset the damage. 
172 Hogs in rape pasture, Ames, Iowa. 
183 Poland China hogs in alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 
122 Hogs shifting for themselves, Texas. 
592 This type of hog shows the lack of breeding. 

X. HIPPOPOTAMI 

If we call them " river horses," the naturalists chide us for our 
loose and incorrect nomenclature; but turn "river horse" into its ex- 
act Greek equivalent " Hippopotamus " and our scientific discrimina- 
tion is applauded. 

Next to the elephant the hippopotamus is the bulkiest existing quad- 
ruped. It is allied to the hog. It was formerly found in the rivers of 
most parts of Africa and is still quite common in the more remote 
districts. It is largely aquatic in its habits and can swim well and 
float and remain a long time under water. It feeds chiefly on aquatic 
plants but is sometimes destructive to cultivated crops. 

577 Hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 

578 Returning with trophies from hippopotamus hunt. 

XI. ELEPHANTS 

There are two well known kinds of elephant ; one the Indian, with 
the small ears and four toes on the hind foot; the other the bigger 
African elephant, with enormous ears and only three toes behind 
(both have five in front). Only the male Indian elephant has tusks 
while both male and female of the African elephant have these weap- 
ons. 

It is well to remember that we once had native elephants of our own 
in America. The mastodon was undoubtedly hunted by our Indian 
predecessors, and its remains are found in many parts of the United 
States and Canada. 
510 Elephant hunt, Siam. 
509 Elephants hauling teak logs, Burma. 
505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. 



338 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 



XII. ALLIGATORS 

The alligator is a cold-blooded reptile of the crocodile family. It 
lives in tropical and sub-tropical countries. There was a time when 
the alligator was very abundant in all Florida rivers, but the discovery 
that its hide made a strong, durable and highly ornamental leather 
created such a demand that it is quite possible the alligator may go 
the way of the buffalo. 
110 Alligator, Palm Beach, Florida. 

XIII. BEAVERS 

The beaver is an amphibious rodent. It has webbed hind feet and 
a broad flat tail. It shows great ingenuity in constructing its home 
and in building dams across streams. The beaver dam shown in view 
196 is a quarter of a mile long and is wriggled across to take advantage 
of every bump, root and supply of building material. It was the pursuit 
of the beaver that first opened up the great North-west. Thousands 
of pelts were used for fur and thousands also for felt. In the latter 
case, the skins left over were used as leather. 
196 A beaver dam, Yellowstone National Park. 

XIV. KANGAROOS 

The kangaroo, the creature that walks on three legs (counting his 
tail) and carries its young in its pocket, was enormously abundant in 
Australia at one time and furnished one of the finest kinds of leather. 
It is quite possible that the high quality of this leather may operate 
to save the jumper from extinction. 
588 Kangaroos, Adelaide, Australia. 

XV. SILK WORMS 

China was the original home of the silk industry, and so fully did 
they appreciate it as a source of wealth that every effort was made by 
these astute silk farmers to keep it to themselves. But the secret arts 
of the silk culture were learned by two Persian monks, who went to 
China to confer the blessings of their message and incidentally derive 
such benefits as they could in fair exchange. 

Having learned the methods of raising and reeling the silk, they 
returned to Constantinople, bringing with them a hollow cane in which 
was a quantity of silk worm eggs. This was in 552 A.D., under the 
Emperor Justinian, who did not a little towards giving this industry to 
the world at large. 

Several attempts have been made to introduce silk culture into 
America ; but so far it has not succeeded. Nor is it likely to succeed 
as long as the much larger opportunities of land, lumber, cattle and 
mineral exploitation are open to our thrifty population. For additional 



HARVEST OF THE SEA 339 

information on silk manufacture see description on views 541, 22, 23, 
24, 53, 54, 55. 

536 Silk worm incubator, Japan. 

537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silk worms. 

538 Feeding mulberry leaves to voracious young silk worms. 

539 Silk worm cocoons in their nests. 

540 Reeling silk from cocoons. 

XVI. THE HARVEST OF THE SEA 

Fishing has always been carried on in all maritime countries and 
has added greatly to their prosperity. Of all fish that are important 
to mankind, the West Coast Salmon has perhaps the strangest history. 
It is hatched far up in the head waters of the West Coast rivers and 
works down to the sea. After three or four years, it returns a full 
grown salmon, goes up the river to some small stream, there spawns 
and dies. " All die after spawning once " ; so that the enormous catch 
of the canneries will have no effect on the salmon's number, if enough 
are left to stock the spawning beds. Jordan and Evermann say that 
the Pacific salmon " is unquestionably the most valuable fish in the 
world." 

The importance of fisheries, in the food supplies of nations and as 
affording large returns for labor can scarcely be overestimated. The 
sea harvest is ripened without trouble or expense to the fishermen. 

226 Netting salmon in the Columbia River, Oregon. 

227 Butchering salmon in cannery, Astoria, Oregon. 
244 Indians drying salmon on Yukon River, Alaska. 

13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. 

531 Drying sardines on beach, Beppu, Japan. 

97 Bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 

86 " Shucking " oysters, Baltimore, Md. 

481 Fisher women selling herring, Finland market. 

345 Hunting seals on skis, South Polar Pack. 

415 Whales and floating whale station, Spitzenbergen. 

XVII. SOME STRANGE AND USEFUL BIRDS 

584 The Penguins are flightless sea-birds of the southern hemisphere. 
They have bartered their freedom of the air for a fuller free- 
dom in the water; for their powers of swimming and diving 
are so wonderful that they live on fish taken in open chase. 

583 The Gannets in this view are a wonderful illustration of birds 
congregating in some favorite nesting ground well protected 
and near abundant food. There are said to be millions of these 
blacktailed gannets on this South African Island. The gannet 
has retained its mastery of the air combined with enough 
adaptation to the water to insure its securing fish for itself 
and its family. 



340 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 

239 Ostriches. Opposite the Gannet Island is the mainland of Africa, 
the home of the ostrich, the largest bird alive on earth today. 
Like the penguin, it has given up its hope of flight for some 
other advantages, in this case, great strength and bulk. This 
view was taken on a California ostrich farm, but the home of 
the industry is Africa. 
56 Chickens. A similar idea may have to do with the white plumage 
of the Leghorns in this view ; though in this case the eggs are 
the most profitable product of the live stock. 

401 Ducks. In the Dutch village here shown whose mainstay is fish- 
ing, we have in the foreground a side issue of the thrifty fish- 
eries, the ducks that careful breeding has brought to such per- 
fection and made so profitable. 

216 Geese. Their kinsfolk, are seen in this Puget Sound picture. 
Here again in the background is the big industry of the country, 
but in the foreground a side line of feathers. These common 
geese are now seen throughout the new West, showing that 
thrift and all-round development have slowly become the order 
of the day. 

415 Gulls. And now, going farther from the land, we have a scene 
that is of regular occurrence at the cutting up of a whale. Not 
less than a dozen species of sea-birds and as many thousands of 
individuals are here assembled, a sight to gladden the heart 
of the bird lover as well as of the artist. 

535 White Crane's. This view shows one of the charming scenes 
typical of Japan, with the little brown ladies in the foreground 
and the big white cranes in the background. One cannot help 
hoping that the overpowering influence of the white man's 
ways will not wipe out these pretty scenes and end by putting 
all Japan in Bowery boots and overalls. 

359 Nightingale. It is fitting to close this bird chapter with one of 
the shyest, rarest, plainest and most famous of all birds — the 
one whose wonderful song has inspired poets and singers in 
all ages, the sweet nightingale, plain brown in her lowly nest, 
brooding over her 1 plain brown eggs, in which there lies con- 
cealed " the music of the moon." 
72 Woodcock. Here is a wonderful example of protective coloring. 
The woodcock is brown marked with black and can hardly be 
separated from the leaves and stems. Its eyes are set so that 
it can see on every side without moving. The tip of the upper 
part of the bill is very sensitive and movable. With this it feels 
about in the mud for the worms upon which it lives. 



27. OUTDOOR LIFE 

BOY SCOUTS, CAMP-FIRE GIRLS, WOODCRAFT 
LEAGUE 

By DANIEL CARTER BEARD (" DAN BEARD ") 

HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT AND NATIONAL SCOUT COMMISSIONER, 
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA, FLUSHING, N. Y. 

Long before there were any skyscrapers, cottages, log 
houses, " shacks, shanties, or shelters," people lived on this 
earth, and they lived in the open ! Our ancestors away back 
there were naked savages, but somewhere hidden in the simple 
brains of these people were the seeds that have since grown 
into wonderful minds, producing great statesmen, poets, artists 
and scientists. 

But the people in those early days had something just as 
valuable as culture — and that is vigorous health. Mainly be- 
cause of the large amount of work done indoors, the people 
of today do not have the vigorous health of the primitive men 
and women. 

The modern trend or desire for the open has produced the 
Sons of Daniel Boone, the Boy Pioneers, from which sprang 
the Boy Scouts of America, the Girl Pioneers, Girl Scouts, the 
Summer Camps, the Camp-fire Girls and the Woodcraft 
League. The primary object is to send the people back again 
to the open, so that they may in a measure regain some of the 
rugged health and the normal healthy condition of the five 
senses possessed by their primitive savage ancestors. 

It is acknowledged that the possession of vigorous health, 
clear farseeing eyes, acute ears and a delicate sense of smell 
is in no wise inconsistent with a highly developed intellect. 
Now the boys and girls of today have the young brains of mod- 
ern men and women which only need schooling and education 
to make as good minds as any possessed by the great people of 
our history. 

Here at school, by the aid of the Keystone stereographs, and 
lantern slides, we can in our minds take hikes anywhere on the 
face of the globe ! We can pretend to pack our knapsacks, 
strap them on our shoulders, grasp our staff and hit the trail 

341 



342 NATURE STUDY — OUT-DOOR LIFE 

back through history. We can spend a day at the Pyramids, 
we can hobnob with the Sphinx, we can make a scout camp in 
the old Colosseum, or we can tramp among the cave dwellers of 
America and Europe. What fun ! I envy you young people 
the joy of your study. 

Think of sitting by your camp fire cooking flapjacks in the 
cliff dwellers' house, built in a cleft of a beetling precipice, or 
rolling up in your blanket and going to sleep where Julius 
Caesar slept or where the ancient Greeks fought and worked. 

We can do all this by help of these wonderful stereographs ; 
we can visit Palestine and tramp through the Bible land where 
the Apostles lived and worked, where Christ preached and per- 
formed miracles. We can even take hikes to the places where 
the crosses were set and awe-stricken, with bared heads, stand 
on the ground where Christ was crucified ! 

Imagination is a wonderful thing, and fortunately young 
people have more of this gift than their seniors, so fill your 
ditty-bag full of enthusiasm and imagination and pack your 
knapsack with the facts and scenes found in this wonderful 
series and then start on your hike, anywhere you choose to go. 
We can scale the Matterhorn or climb the Himalayas and 
step out on the roof of the world. We can go to South Africa 
and see millions of gannets and whole regiments of funny 
penguins Waddling about like white-vested soldiers. We can 
sail with Peary to the North Pole or travel with Amundson 
across antarctic lands. 

There is nothing we cannot do on this earth if our ditty- 
bag is well filled and we have the help of a stereoscope or lan- 
tern and this wonderful collection of Keystone Views. 

HIKES 

1, 2 Some hunters hike through Maine woods. 

6, to 10, 13 Visitors to Boston take hikes to historical places 

in and about the city. 
14, to 18 A hike through the textile mills of Lawrence, Mass. 
25, to 31, 34, 35, 51 The high school pupils take hikes about 

New York City. 
36, to 39 Boy scouts, having read Irving's stories, take hikes in 

the Hudson River Valley. 
47, to 50. Buffalo Camp-fire girls hike to Niagara Falls. 
61, to 67 A hike to a steel mill at night is an experience never to 

be forgotten. 



HIKES 343 

* 

69, 70 Boy Scouts of Oil City hike out into the country to see a 

well shot. 
12 On this hike we found a woodcock on her eggs. She was very 

difficult to see. 
73 Old soldiers hike over the Gettysburg battle fields. 
74, to 79 A hike to a coal mine is very interesting. 
80, 82, to 84 The Boy Scouts of Germantown hiked to Phila- 
delphia to see the old bell and mint. They visited several 
factories while there. 
87, to 96 Every American hopes some day to hike over Wash- 
ington, D. C. 
98, to 100. Also every American looks forward to hiking about 
the historic places near the mouth of the James River. 

102, 103 Winter visitors to the Carolina mountains enjoy, and 
gain health from the mountain hikes. 

108, to 111 A winter hike in Florida is well worth while. 

106 Sherman's march to the sea was a famous hike. 

114 A hike over Lookout Mountain and the Chattanooga battlefields 
must not be missed. 

119, 120 Hikes about New Orleans are interesting. 

122, to 127 A hike through Texas shows the astonishing de- 
velopment of that country. 

136, to 138 A party of Boy Scouts saw these scenes on a Satur- 
day morning hike. 

139, to 144 Very many visitors to Chicago hike through stock- 
yards and packing houses. 

150, to 152 Men are always interested in hikes to the factories 
where automobiles are made. 

154, to 157 Michigan Boy Scouts hiked to the Lake Superior 
mines. 

159, to 161 A morning hike along country roads will show scenes 
like this. 

170, 171 Keokuk Scouts hike to the Great Dam. 

174, 148 A hike along the river front at St. Louis, Mo., will show 
how the river must be watched. 

191, to 197 The best way to see the Yellowstone is to hike 
through, camping each night. Professional guides help to 
make such an experience delightful. 

202, 205, 208 A canyon gives its full beauty to the pedestrian who hikes 
along the winding paths. 

206, 208 No matter what means of conveyance is used to reach these 
places, the sight-seer must hike over the steep trails if he is 
to see the best of it. 

213, 214 Through such country, over mountains and valleys, hiked 
the gold hunters prospecting for gold. 

219, 221 Enthusiastic mountain climbers hike to the tops of these 
mountains. They claim no exhilaration equals that ob- 
tained by mountain climbing. 

228, 229 John Muir hiked through the Yosemite and made it 



344 NATURE STUDY — OUT-DOOR LIFE 

known to the rest of us. Great naturalists must be great 
hikers. 

228, to 242 A winter's hike in California is very entertaining. 

182, 189, 191, to 197, 221, to 223 Through this country Lewis 
and Clark made that long, long hike, exploring the Louisi- 
ana Territory which the United States had jnst purchased. 

243, to 246 All the people who travel in Alaska hike. Miners, 
merchants, officials all go on foot. 

262, 264, to 269 Every year visitors from the States take the 
trip down the St. Lawrence, stopping to hike through and 
around Quebec, Montreal and other interesting places. 

274, to 276 In the same way travelers in the Canadian Pacific 
take hikes through the lovely mountain scenery. 

280, to 283 From Vera Cruz, one may hike to Mexico City over 
a broad highway built by the Aztecs. Cortez and his men 
walked this road. 

284, to 289 Take a hike through Mexico with Keystone Views. 
It is far safer than a real hike would be. 

291, to 294 You will need "seven league boots," that is Keystone 
Views, for this hike through Central America. 

305, to 311. A hike about Rio Janeiro and Sao Paulo will let you 
see where your coffee comes from. 

324, 325, 326, 327 Boy travelers in Chili will hike from Valpa- 
raiso to Santiago and then to the rainless coast where nitre 
is gotten. 

329, to 334 Imagine following the footsteps of Pizarro. The 
cruel conqueror would hardly know this country as it is 
today. 

338, to 341 Just a little hike today. Caracas must get all its 
imports . through La Guaira, the port on the low hot coast. 
Let us hike along and see both cities. 

347, to 352 English people walk much more than Americans. A 
hike through London's famous places is a hike through 
history. 

354, to 356 Every boy and girl will be glad to hike to Shake- 
speare's home and perhaps attend a play in Memorial 
Theater. 

365, to 372 Take your hike with Rob Roy, and Bruce and Wal- 
lace and Roderick Dhu. Over this country Sir Walter 
Scott loved to hike. 

374, to 382 And next a hike through Ireland with proper re- 
spect to the " wee folk," not forgetting to kiss the Blarney 
stone. 

383, 384 Boy Scouts must hike about Berlin. 

385 American soldiers hiked to Cohlenz, where they were stationed. 

388, to 394 So many people are looking back to the delightful 
time they spent hiking down the Rhine region, stopping 
everywhere to see the beautiful scenery and historic places. 

396, to 397 If today you could hike from Antwerp to Namur, 



HIKES 345 

it would be a different Belgium you would see, for Belgium 
has been almost destroyed by the war. 
399, to 403 A hike through quaint Dutch places will show us 

that Holland, too, is feeling the war. 
421, to 426 Be an American soldier on leave. Hike about Paris, 

and then go back to duty at the front. 
427, 428, 440, to 449 The only right way to see the Alps is to 
go on foot. So take your staff, put on your mountain shoes 
and hike up the mountain roads. Climb the Matterhorn 
and study the glaciers and spend your nights in the lovely 
little pensions along your way. Whole schools in Switzer- 
land make hikes to historical places. 
458, 459, 456, 457, 450, to 455 And when you have seen the 
Alps, hike down into Italy and Sicily. It will take a whole 
vacation to visit noted places in Milan and Venice, to hike 
on to Florence and Rome. You will want to climb Ve- 
suvius. 
460 to 462 Again the " seven leagued boots " to hike through Austria. 
467, to 471 It will take giant steps (only the Keystone Views 
can help us) to hike down the Danube, taking only a 
glimpse of each of the Balkan peoples. Watch out for 
bandits on your way. 
472 to 474, 489 Take a hike about Constantinople and see if you can 

learn why it is the " key of the East." 
475, to 479 All of you, boys and girls, will take this hike through 
Greece, and, as you go, imagination will bring back the ancient 
glory. 
482, to 488 Every American boy and girl living under the Stars and 
Stripes will be interested in this newest republic. So let us 
get a passport at Petrograd, and hike to the old capital at Mos- 
cow and then to the great market at Nizhni Novgorod. Watch 
the oppressed Jews in Warsaw and then hike to Kief. 
492, to 498 How your heart thrills as you take this hike over the same 
roads and stand in the same places where Jesus used to be. 
Perhaps you camp where Richard Cceur de Lion pitched his 
tent or where Saladan had his camp. 
500 Here is another long hike. You must start in at Calcutta low 

and hot and come out on the roof of the world. 
513 A hike in Hong Kong will surprise you. This Chinese city 
belongs to the English. Its name is Victoria and the island 
upon which it is located is Hong Kong. 
515, to 519 A hike in this region is much pleasanter than riding in a 

palanquin. 
519 Through people like these, our soldiers marched to Pekin to res- 
cue the western legations shut up in that city. With the Key- 
stone Views you can hike over the same ground much more 
safely. 
525, to 541 A hike in Japan would include a visit to Fuji-Yama. You 
would go in the tea fields with this gay little girl. You would 



346 NATURE STUDY — OUT-DOOR LIFE 

buy shoes in this quaint shoe store, and visit the little ladies in 
the tea garden. 

546, to 553 On your hike through the Philippines you will see buffaloes 
used as work animals and you may eat fresh coconuts and 
watch the natives making rope. 

558, to 569 Start in at Alexandria and hike to Cairo. You will lunch 
with the Sphinx, camp in the shadow of the Pyramids. You 
will feel as if you had stepped into the far past until your hike 
ends at the very modern irrigation dam at Assuan. 

575, to 577 Imagine you are with Livingstone hiking through the 
jungle, discovering the Victoria Falls. 

570, to 573 Or with these views hike with Stanley searching for Liv- 
ingstone and visit the savages in their native homes. 

579, to 584 In South Africa you will hike to the gold mines, cross the 
veldts, hunt for diamonds, then hiking south you will see the 
gannets and penguins and at Cape Town take the ship for home. 

585, to 589 Boy Scouts in Sydney will hike to Victoria and Queens- 
land. 

•593, to 600 And finally with these views you can hike to some ob- 
servatory and see sun, moon, stars and a comet. 



28. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

By MEYER BLOOMFIELD, B.A. 

DIRECTOR OF THE VOCATION BUREAU, BOSTON, MASS. 
EDITOR AND PUBLISHER OF " INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS " 

The story of the occupations is the story of about everything 
the world holds to be of human interest. Every occupation is 
a lesson in history, geography, civics, arithmetic, English and 
drawing. To have pictures of the world's work before our 
eyes as we go through our school lessons each day is to dra- 
matize these lessons for ourselves in a way our memories take 
joy in ; and when such pictures are of the kind the Keystone 
collection offers, the children react to them as they do to noth- 
ing less than an actual visit to the industries themselves. Here 
are pictures in three dimensions, solid, deep, and delicate in 
light and shade. Every child's imagination will supply the 
motion. A film or reel 01 moving pictures puts a strain on 
the eyes of young folks, the speed of the picture is often- 
times a distraction. The Keystone pictures are the more sat- 
isfactory for the quiet and composure they invite. For the 
reasons just mentioned, then, the use of the set dealing with 
various industries and employments is the best possible in- 
troduction for children to the vital subject of choosing a life 
career. During their early teens they get countless impres- 
sions ; in their adolescence they begin to test out these im- 
pressions in life-experience. A childhood start through such 
impressions and associations as the Keystone views afford may 
prove to be decisive in the future careers of many a boy and 
girl. 

In studying the pictures the thought that is most helpful to 
bear in mind is that everything we use and enjoy is the result 
of our own or some one else's labor, and that to do one's work 
well means skill, thought, effort, and sacrifice. 

These 600 stereographs and slides touch a very wide range 
of vocational activity. In the space available for this com- 
ment only a limited number can be dealt with. The resource- 

347 



348 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

ful teacher will find in the title list and the various classifica- 
tions a great deal of material that will prove helpful in pre- 
senting this subject. 

1. PRODUCTION 

A. FOOD GIVERS 

(i) The Farmer 

Three out of ten of all the people in the United States are farmers. 
We owe the food we eat to the work of these country people ; from it 
the flour mills get their grain, the textile mills their wool and cotton, 
the packing houses their cattle. Our shoes, clothing, and bread owe 
their existence to the farmer. Agriculture or farming is the basic 
vocation, every other vocation rests upon it. To help nature produce 
the food we need is a wonderful thing to do. A farmer must know 
many useful things, and use his mind well, for whatever mistakes he 
makes may affect us all in our comforts and necessities. A good 
farmer is a scientist, engineer, and business man all in one. There are 
many interesting careers open to those who love the outdoor life, simple 
food, hard work, and the wonders of sky and field throughout the 
changing seasons. 

Railroads,' automobiles, the post office, the telephone and telegraph 
have brought to the farmer's doorstep many of the advantages of the 
crowded centers of population and have done away with the isolation 
of the country home. There are libraries, granges, clubs, and many 
kinds of social activities. 

The farmer is independent. He is his own master. He eats the 
food he raises. He is the backbone of our country. 

Farm work is a daily education. There is something new to learn 
every day. The United States Bureau of Agriculture and experiment 
stations are working on a thousand problems for him. See Food 
Products under classification Production and Manufacturing, also the 
Agricultural group. 

(2) The Stockman 

The stockman is a farmer who raises cattle, horses, mules, sheep or 
hogs for the market. His products are in great demand. The great 
range country which cattle and sheep require is west of the Mississippi. 
See classification on Animals. 

(3) The Dairyman 

Unlike the stockman, we find the dairy business near the great cities. 
New York is at the head in numbers of dairy cows. Selling milk and 
cream calls for a location within driving distance of many people, or 
near a railroad or trolley line. The work on a dairy farm is exacting, 
but pleasant to one who loves animals. Modern sanitary dairies and 
creameries are fine business establishments with many opportunities 
for ambition. 



MINING — LUMBERING 349 

159, 165 Modern dairy barns ; 57, 403 Milking scenes ; 46 Filling milk 
bottles; 45 Washing butter; 356 Shorthorn dairy cattle; 364 Jerseys. 

(4) The Poultryman 

Here is one of the great businesses of our country. The eggs and 
poultry of the United States are worth as much as the hay or the 
wheat crop — about seven hundred millions of dollars. 

There are many lines of opportunity to the careful and intelligent 
poultryman. Commission trade, hotels, restaurants, ships, and selected 
homes are some of the markets. A small capital but much assiduity 
are needed for both a moderate or large success in this business. 
56 Chickens; 401, 564 Ducks; 216 Geese. 

(5) Market Gardening 

The back yard is often the foundation of a good market garden busi- 
ness. Potatoes, cabbages, onions, asparagus, tomatoes, cucumbers, and 
melons, carefully grown, neatly packed, and delivered in fresh con- 
dition, have started many a boy and girl on the way to independence. 
Go to your grocer some day and find out where he gets his vegetables 
and how much he pays for them. See classification Orchard, Garden 
and Wood Lot, also Marketing and Market Centers. 

B. MINING 

This is work for good students interested in their physics, chemistry 
and mineralogy. Good health and constitution able to stand day and 
night work and periods of strain are needed. Mining engineering is 
fascinating, at times full of adventure, then again come long periods 
of drudgery, poor food and little shelter. 

Graduates of mining schools are in great demand. They earn little 
in the beginning, but if they are resourceful, industrious, and capable 
of carrying heavy responsibility, there is little to stop their advancement. 

Mining work itself is arduous, often dangerous, and yet it is at the 
basis of all our industries. 

74 to 79, 129 Coal; 187, 155 Copper; 581 Diamonds; 245, 225, 579 
Gold; 3 Granite; 163, 164, 128 Iron; 4, 5 Marble; 325 Nitrate; 378 
Peat; 122, 69, 70, 123 Petroleum; 115 Phosphate; 214, 287 Silver; 176 
Zinc and Lead. 

C. LUMBERING 
To one who has taken a course in Forestry and is willing to start 
at the bottom and work up, the lumbering industry offers large oppor- 
tunities. It calls for an intimate knowledge of trees. The work for 
the most part is heavy and out of doors, but pleasant to one who loves 
the open. For list of views see classification Wood Sources, etc. 



350 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



2. MANUFACTURING AND CONSTRUCTION 

A. IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE 
The manufacture of iron and steel is one of our most important 
industries, in which hundreds of millions of capital are invested. 
Much of the manual labor in connection with the industry is done by 
foreigners, but many foremen and superintendents are needed. The 
work is heavy, strength and skill are required. The great size of the 
industry makes many positions for a large office and sales force. The 
more skilled workers are well paid and advancement is quite rapid. 
Students with technical training along lines of mechanical, electrical 
and chemical engineering are much in demand. For views see Metals 
in classification Production and Manufacturing. 

B. STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL WORKERS 

This is hard work, oftentimes dangerous, and calls for endurance 
and steadiness. 

The task of this worker is to raise by means of engines the heavy 
steel trusses, girders, and beams, some weighing as much as twenty 
tons each, put them in place, and rivet them fast in order to make the 
skeleton of a building or bridge. 
126 Steel framework for tall building being erected. 

25, 26, 28, 30 New York skyscrapers, the framework of which is steel. 
139, 167, 121, 230 Tall buildings with steel framework. 
470, 174, 330, 366, 392, 27, 50, 500, 575 Bridges. 
421 Eiffel Tower, tallest structure in world. 

65, 150, 334 Structural steel in mill and factory interiors. 

C. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

This is now one of the great industries of the country, for both 
pleasure cars and trucks driven by gasoline or electricity are among 
the necessities of modern life and trade. In an automobile factory are 
employed designers, engineers, carriage makers, machinists, upholster- 
ers, cabinet makers, painters, and many kinds of mechanics. 
132 Building up an automobile tire, Akron, O. 

150 Assembling room, Cadillac automobile plant, Detroit. 

151 Experts testing Cadillac engines, Detroit. 

152 Employees leaving Ford motor plant, Detroit. 

D. TEXTILES 

In the manufacture of textiles many rather complicated machines are 
needed. The mills are usually located where much cheap labor is to 
be had, a large per cent used being women and girls. The textile com- 
panies usually pay good dividends. For views see Textile Industries 
under classification Local Industries. 



MASON — ARCHITECT — ELECTRICIAN 351 



E. THE MASON 

The mason builds chimneys, walls, foundations, abutments, etc., by 
laying, according to plans, bricks, stones, and cement blocks, in orderly 
tiers with mortar between. He works in stone, concrete, cement, and 
plaster. A good mason is one who likes tools, science, mathematics, 
and drawing. Masons and carpenters are the backbone of the building 
trades and receive about the same pay. 

3 Quarrying granite; 4 Marble quarrying; 5 Chiseling marble; 25 
to 30 Examples of masonry in New York City; 87 Capitol building; 
95 Congressional Library ; 139 Chicago buildings ; 167 Minneapolis ; 
170 Keokuk dam; 210 Roosevelt dam; 230 San Francisco; 252, 253 
Gatun locks; 348 London Bridge; 384 Royal Palace, Berlin; 424 Grand 
Opera, Paris; 425 Notre Dame, Paris; 429 Cathedral, Marseilles; 470 
Cerna-Voda bridge; 483 The Kremlin, Moscow; 502 Taj Mahal. For 
further examples see classification Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile. 

F. THE ARCHITECT 

The architect plans and designs buildings for the many purposes 
of shelter, comfort, work, recreation, and assembly. There are two 
sides to the work, one the artistic planning, the other the practical 
construction. Each side calls for much training and skill. While the 
earnings are seldom large, and this is true of most professional work, 
the satisfaction for those of artistic taste with a keen desire to draw, 
plan, and construct is considerable. Cathedral, palace, workshop, cot- 
tage — ■ all owe their being to the dreams and the practical skill of 
these men. When you look at your city hall or dwelling, think of the 
long days of planning, sketching, figuring, then painstaking drawing of 
the smallest detail in the office of the architect. See Architectural 
Design under classification Industrial Design, including Architecture. 

G. THE ELECTRICIAN 

The electrical industry, like the automobile industry, is a recent and 
typically American development. American inventive geniuses, men like 
Edison and Westinghouse, have made it what it is. The practical elec- 
trician is a mechanic skilled in work of wiring houses, factories, and 
other buildings for electric lighting and electric power. Electrical 
engineers who are college trained men, well versed in science and 
mathematics, have charge of large constructions, such as power stations, 
electric railroads, mines, telephones and telegraphs. 

There are many avenues to choose in this big field, open to those who 
like hard work, study, and the application of electrical energy to the 
many needs of domestic and industrial life. 

31 Electric car lines, New York City. 

43 Electric R. R. by side of steam road. 

49, 50 Niagara Falls great source electric power. 

139 Street car lines on State Street, Chicago. 

170 Great power dam and locks in Mississippi River, Keokuk. 



352 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

171 Fifteen large electric generators, Keokuk, Iowa. 

1Z2, 253 Electric towing engines and light lines along Gatun locks. 

256 Wireless towers at entrance of Panama Canal. 

43 Shows telegraph lines along railroad. 

273, 324, 486, 590 Electric street car lines. 

21, 84, 89, 92 Electric lighting fixtures. 

88, 92, 94 Electric fans. 

H. CHEMISTRY 

As the manufacturing processes in this country become more ex- 
tensive and complicated, the importance of chemistry becomes more 
apparent. It might be classed as one of our new industries but one of 
the most important and one with an almost unlimited future. The 
demand for skilled chemists greatly exceeds the supply. 
68 Coke ovens. Coal tar is a by-product obtained in the manufac- 
ture of coke from coal. From it are obtained many very valu- 
able chemicals. Formerly Germany manufactured most of the 
coal tar dyes and chemicals. Now the United States govern- 
ment is encouraging this very important industry. 

INDUSTRIES THAT DEPEND UPON CHEMISTS 

187, 156 Copper; 15, 16 Cotton; 134, 135 Glass; 287, 203 Gold; 62 to 64 
Iron; 84 Money; 325 Nitrate; 412, 19, 20 Paper; 122, 69, 70, 123 Petro- 
leum; 58, 59 Pottery, 131 Rubber; 53 to 55 Silk; 214, 334 Silver; 116 
65 to 67 Steel; 271, 258, 35, 34 Sugar; 272 Tanning; 107 Turpentine; 
18, 81 Wool ; 176 Zinc and lead. 

3. DISTRIBUTION 

A. RAILROADING 

This is one of the most fascinating and important of all occupations, 
for the spirit of our new country is summed up in our improvement in 
means of communication. Moving about speedily and easily is the 
secret of the growth of great civilization. 

From the time when James Watt mused over his steaming teakettle 
and its rattling lid to the present mogul engine and the electric locomo- 
tive, the world has been growing into a neighborhood. 

There are many kinds of occupations connected with railroading. 
The engineer is a man of long experience and proved quality. He 
probably began as a helper or cleaner in the round house, then was 
allowed to work as fireman on a yard or freight engine and finally if 
he has been a first-rate mechanic and man he is given one of the great 
passenger trains in charge. 

In the main departments of the railroad are those who look after 
operating, with superintendents, managers, foremen, section men, bridge 
builders, signalmen, yardmasters, as well as engineers and firemen. 



MARKETING — BANKING 353 

Great repair shops are maintained to keep the engines and cars in 
order. 

The traffic department is charged with the duty of looking after the 
passenger and freight business, for a railroad must sell transportation 
if it is to have money. In this department we have also the mail and 
express service, as well as the station agents. 

The accounting department with its corps of bookkeepers and clerks 
keeps track of the immense amount of papers, records, and accounts. 

Railroad workers today are carrying a large responsibility and are 
required to be strong, of good habits, and most industrious. There are 
nearly two million men engaged in this work. See Railroad Trans- 
portation under classification Transportation. 

B. MARKETING 

Each year thousands of high school and business college graduates 
take positions as clerks and stenographers with firms that market food 
products, machinery, etc. Some of these positions offer large oppor- 
tunities. A helpful study of marketing and market centers can be 
made with the " 600 Set." See classification Marketing and Market 
Centers. 

C. BANKING 

A bank is not only a safe place in which to keep money and savings; 
it is the great means for giving credit or loans to those whose business 
requires funds or assurances that funds will be ready when necessary. 
In this way very little actual money passes. Bankers are advisers in 
matters of business, investments, loans, wills, and mortgages. A bank 
employs bookkeepers, clerks, messengers, and receiving and paying 
tellers. The cashier, treasurer, president are the highest officials. 
Work in a bank is congenial, and most of the time not very arduous, 
but the salaries paid are not very high except for the top officials, and 
promotions are slow. No one can get work in a bank who is not 
known for trustworthiness, neatness, good handwriting, and skill and 
accuracy in using figures. 
29 Wall Street, now the world's financial center. 
351 The Bank of England, London. 
590 Union Bank of Australia, Hobart, Tasmania. 

4. SPECIAL VOCATIONS 

A. PRINTING 

This work has to do with the manufacture of books, magazines, 
pamphlets, posters, and newspapers, and is one of the great industries 
of America. For neat, rapid, and well trained workers the field is un- 
limited, as the world calls each year for more and more printed matter 
of good quality. 
28 World Building, New York, where one of our great newspapers 

is published. 
94 Bureau of printing and engraving, Washington, D. C. 



354 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



B. TEACHING 

Our civilization is kept together by the work of the teacher, who 
trains the growing generation to take up the work of the world and 
carry it on with fresh energy and ideals and human sympathy. More 
than twenty million children are in our public schools, taught by more 
than half a million teachers. 

The work is pleasant because it means helping children grow into 
fine men and women, but it is hard work, calling for strength, patience, 
constant study, and no end of sympathy. 

As a rule teachers are never paid as well as highly skilled mechanics, 
but their services are valuable for the help they give and the love of 
their pupils, who are started well along in the life career. 

A teacher must take a long course of training and be able to teach 
and to help in many ways. Education is a great science and means 
a lifetime of study and toil. 

83 School gardens as a practical educational method. 

260 Royal school, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

306 American private school, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

520 American mission school, Pekin, China. 

C LIBRARIAN 

This is a new profession and requires more ability than most people 
are aware of. There are several training schools preparing young men 
and women for this important work. To manage a library requires 
intelligence, business skill, literary taste and technical knowledge, as 
well as a personal interest in the needs of readers and the reading 
public. 

95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. 

D. CIVIL SERVICE 

This is the channel by which men and women mainly reach the posi- 
tions under our city, state, and national government. Our government 
is a great employer. In New York City alone over one hundred thou- 
sand men and women are city employees. Every kind of occupation 
is to be found in the Civil Service, which means that city, state, and 
nation need about the same kind of help that any private employer may 
need. So we find in the Civil Service positions for clerks, accountants, 
bookkeepers, court attendants, engineer, foreman, stenographer, 
draughtsman, librarian, and about all the trades. If you want to know 
what positions are open, and what you must do to prepare for an 
examination, write to the United States Civil Service Commission, 
Washington, D. C. 

While the compensation is moderate, promotion slow, and opportunity 
limited, the work under the Civil Service is steady, and under good 
conditions. 



CIVIL SERVICE 355 

8 Old State House, Boston. Many state officials are under the Civil 
Service. 
28 New York City Halls, also many city employees. 
32 Immigrants landing. Practically all of the employees of the 

United States government are under the Civil Service. 
84 United States Government mint, Philadelphia. 
87, 90, 94, 95 United States Government buildings, Washington, D. C. 
193 Officers in our national park work under Civil Service. 
260 School teachers in Hawaii and the Philippines work under the 
Civil Service. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND DOMESTIC 

ARTS 

By MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER 

PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, AND DIRECTOR OF EXTENSION 

DEl'T. OF HOME ECONOMICS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 

ITHACA, N. Y. 

INTRODUCTION 

Through a long period of evolution the family dwelling place 
had developed into a diversified manufacturing center where 
all the household arts and industries were carried out co- 
operatively under one roof by the women of the family. A 
girl growing up in that home gradually took her share in that 
labor and through constant observation and actual participa- 
tion gained an intimate knowledge of the materials and the 
processes of manufacture of all the articles used in the home. 
She need not leave her own threshold to be thoroughly 
schooled in every branch of the domestic sciences and arts. 
Such training was passed on from mother to daughter. Varied 
as were the industries of these homes of two or three genera- 
tions ago, the women presiding there had all the links in the 
chain of production within their own hands and did not need to 
investigate far beyond their own activities. 

When the widespread introduction of machinery brought in 
its wake modern methods of cooperative business, the indus 
tries of the home were gradually taken over into factories — 
changing the home from a manufacturing plant to an adminis- 
trative establishment where the housewife directs the purchase 
of equipment and commodities produced outside the home. 
For a time educators overlooked these changed conditions. 
Fortunately there came an awakening which resulted in the in- 
troduction of domestic science and art into our school system; 
and courses of study in home economics have been developed 
in our higher institutions of learning in order to train workers 
who are needed to teach in the public schools and to go among 
women whose advantages have been limited and to help in 

350 



INTRODUCTION 357 

every possible way to organize and standardize the difficult 
business of home-making. 

The need for this knowledge has been impressed upon us by 
the great World War. The international food crisis showed 
that a woman's conserving work is of the greatest importance ; 
that the expenditure and waste of the individual home are inter- 
national problems. Consequently, the need for women to be 
specialized in their province of home-making has been enforced 
upon us and this resulted in starting an emergency pro- 
gram of education along the lines of proper home manage- 
ment. Such a program is basic to right living, and although 
started as a war measure, should be permanent. To this end, 
every means of education possible should be brought into play. 
It is not feasible to prepare women for intelligent direction of 
the highly organized modern home through lectures and text- 
books only. Such knowledge has been too long confined to the 
laboratory and the technical school. It must be made common 
to all the people, that there may be a more intelligent selection 
and use of food, clothing and shelter since these relate to the 
well-being not of one, nor of one group, but of us all. The sub- 
ject of Home Economics then, whether practiced for home mak- 
ing or for earning an independent living, becomes a profession, 
an opportunity for both men and women to place domestic life 
upon a rational business basis. 

Where the girl formerly learned these things in her own 
home, she now needs to have them presented to her as vividly 
and impressively as possible. The stereograph and lantern 
slide series does just this. It shows all the materials of tex- 
tiles used in the home and for clothing in their original forms, 
cotton growing in the fields, and ways in which it is gathered. 
It shows animals from which various fibers are obtained, how 
these fibers are woven into cloth, and it follows straight 
through to the marketing of the finished product. In the same 
way the subjects of household equipment, food, and home 
building are taken up and each step along the way is pictured. 
The Keystone Views make the world a practical laboratory 
and the world is none too large a laboratory for this important 
field of knowledge. They give such an exposition of processes 
and labor, that they tie education to living things and where it 
was theoretical they make it vital. 



29. INDUSTRIES SUPPLYING THE HOME 

By LORENZO DOW HARVEY, Ph.D. 

PRESIDENT OF STOUT INSTITUTE, MENOMINEE, WIS. 

Less than two hundred years ago, the ordinary home was 
an independent unit largely self-supporting. The men raised 
the food of all kinds; the clothes were entirely of home pro- 
duction. The houses were made of homemade boards or logs 
and even the nails were made at home. 

In these days of specialized industry, the home has become 
composite, drawing its materials for work and comfort from 
every industry and from all over the world. 

The Keystone Views show very clearly how every industry 
contributes to the home. 

WOOD INDUSTRIES 

In the United States most of our homes are made of wood. The 
inside finishing even in stone buildings is woodwork. 

1 The forests of Maine furnish white pine. 
162 A load of logs. Many kinds of hard woods were found in the 

American forests. 
224 Felling a tree; 215 Chained log rafts; 216 Port Blakely mills. 
These three views show how trees are turned into lumber. 
9, 10, 96, 181. Most of the houses in the United States are made 
of lumber. 
107 Houses are protected from the weather by paint which is mixed 

with turpentine. 
88, 89, 92 The insides of the most beautiful buildings are finished in 

woodwork. 
92, 373, 417 Most of the furniture is made of wood. 
412 Some of our homes are decorated with wall paper made from 

wood pulp. 
445 Many homes are heated by wood fires. An open wood fire, once 
so universal, is now a luxury. 

MINING INDUSTRIES 
Most of our homes seem far removed from mining and yet the 
products of that industry are in use every day. The Keystone Views 
will show this very clearly. 

358 



INDUSTRIES SUPPLYING THE HOME 359 

75, 76 Our houses and offices are heated by coal. If steam or hot 

water is used, it is heated by a coal fire. 
78 Slate pickers take out the stone, leaving only the coal. 
77, 129 Long trains carry the coal all over the United States. 
68 Coke makes a very clean fire with an even heat, so is much used. 
378 In Ireland peat is the common fuel. 

69, 70 In oil countries, oil and gas are used for fuel and light. 
122, 123 As a result of refining petroleum, gasoline is obtained, also 

dyes for our clothing and medicines such as vaseline. 
115 After fields have been cultivated, they become impoverished. 
Perhaps your own garden or fields have been fertilized with 
phosphates from this very mine. 
155, 156, 157 Practically all the wires which carry electricity into your 

houses for light, for telephones or household use are copper. 
187 Copper combined with brass is used in countless articles in our 

houses, from chandeliers to water faucets. 
176 Zinc is used to cover other metals to prevent rusting. Galvan- 
ized ware is zinc covered. Zinc is also an important ingre- 
dient in brass. 
214, 334 Silver is used in tableware, in photography, in jewelry and 

for coins. 
214, 225, 287, 245 Gold fills our teeth, makes many pens and most of 
our watches and jewelry. 
84 Both gold and silver are made into coins. 
581 Besides their use as ornaments, diamonds are used where hard 
points are needed. The needle in some victrolas is diamond 
pointed. 

METAL INDUSTRIES 

62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 Try to count the places where iron or steel is 
used in your home. Begin with the blade of your knife, do 
not forget the watch springs, nor the beams in the steel framed 
buildings nor the nails in the heel of your shoe. 
150, 151, 152 Even if you have no automobile of your own, your gro- 
ceries, furniture, in fact whatever is delivered to you will 
probably come in some form of automobile. 

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 
It is a very good plan to let a child take some article of dress which 
he is wearing and trace it back through all the steps of its preparation 
for use. Such an exercise will show him very plainly how the home 
is affected by outside industrj'. It should develop the idea of inter- 
dependence and the responsibility of each worker in the sum of life. 

Cotton 

41 View in sewing roof of a large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 
These girls are clothed in cotton dresses. 
207 Farmers planted and cultivated the cotton. 



360 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

16 Lawrence, Mass. This cloth came from a printing room such as 

this. 
15 Lawrence, Mass. Before the cloth could be printed, the design 

had to be made and transferred to the copper rolls. 
14 Lawrence, Mass. The thread was spun before the cloth could be 

woven. 
286 Mexico. Carding machines straightened the fibers before it could 

be spun. 
119 New Orleans, La. The cotton came to the mills in the form of 

bales. 
125 Texas. Gins had removed the seeds before the cotton could be 

baled. 
124 Texas. Men with horses and wagons had carried it from the 

fields to the gin. 
117 Mississippi. Negroes had picked it, and before that it had been 

planted and cared for. 
41 View in sewing room. So these girls are dressed by the combined 

efforts of farmers, pickers, ginners, balers, carders, spinners, 

weavers, designers, printers, and merchants. 
184 Kansas; 166 Minnesota. The starch used in preparing the cloth is 

made from corn or potatoes. 

Silk 

55 Paterson, N. J. Your silk hair ribbons were perhaps woven in the 

factory at Paterson. 
53 Paterson, N. J. For these hair ribbons men very carefully drew 

the warp. 
23 Connecticut; 540, Japan. The threads used for this had been 
taken from the cocoon by machinery or else carefully reeled by 
some patient Japanese worker. 
539 Japan. The cocoon had been spun by the silkworms. 
538 Japan. These worms had been watched and fed. 
537 Japan. Men went to the fields for the mulberry leaves which had 

been cultivated for that purpose. 
536 Japan. Other workers had carefully watched the hatching of the 
silkworms. 

Wool 
In the same way, it takes a very great number of people and opera- 
tions to make the woolen cloth you wear. 
506 Kashmir, India. The shawls woven by these people are often 

worth their weight in gold. 
81 Philadelphia. The woven cloth is always made of yarn which 

must be spun. 
409 Norway. It must be cleaned and carded before spinning. 

17 Before it can be carded, it must be sorted and cleaned. 

145 Each sheep is sheared in the spring. The thick wool which kept 

the sheep warm in winter is cut off. 
173 Iowa; 190 Idaho; 589 Australia. To get the wool, sheep must 

be raised. 



INDUSTRIES SUPPLYING THE HOME 361 



PAPER INDUSTRY 

One of the great wastes of the nation is in the destruction of old 
cloth, the material from which the best paper is made. The more paper 
is made from rags, the less will it need to be made from wood pulp. 
The manufacture of paper from wood pulp is seriously depleting the 
forests. 

19, 20 The rags in the first picture are the paper in the second. 
412 Paper used in newspapers, wall paper, etc., is made from wood 
pulp. 

FOODS 

All industries which provide food — fisheries, agriculture, meat, dairy- 
ing, poultry and salt industries — all these supply the home. The chap- 
ter on Foods and Cookery contains a clear presentation of these sub- 
jects. 

TRANSPORTATION 

In these days of specialized labor, people, especially those in the city, 
make very few things for themselves. All their food, clothes, build- 
ing materials, everything is brought to them. So city people are abso- 
lutely dependent upon markets and transportation. 

129 Conneaut, Ohio. The coal which heats your home must come by 
train. 

123 Texas. If you use gas, it is transported by a pipe line. 

119 Texas. Cotton raised in the South must be carried to the mills of 
the North or of England and the cloth is shipped to the users. 

166 Potatoes ; 167 Minneapolis ; 139 Chicago. These Minnesota pota- 
toes will probably feed Minneapolis or Chicago. 

140 Chicago, 111. Great trains bring the cattle to the stock yards. 

141, to 145 Chicago, 111. Other trains of refrigerator cars carry the 
meat to us. 
For a complete treatment, see the chapter on Transportation. 

MARKETS 

7 Boston, Mass. Some of our buying, especially the purchase o f 
fresh food, is done in local markets such as Quincy. 
29 New York ; 139 Chicago ; 213, Ogden ; 380, Dublin. Far more of 
our buying is done in stores which are really specialized markets. 
See Markets and Marketing. 



30. FOODS AND COOKERY 

By EDNA N. WHITE, B.S. 

HEAD OF DEPT. OF HOME ECONOMICS AND SUPERVISOR OF HOME 

ECONOMICS EXTENSION DEPT. OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, 

COLUMBUS, OHIO 

Assisted by LELIA McGUIRE, B.S., M.S. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, OHIO STATE 
UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO 

The World War crisis has clearly shown the importance of 
knowledge of the food problem. Never have the services of 
people trained along these lines been in such demand ; never 
has there been such an urgent call for the increase and con- 
servation of our food supply. 

Conservation means first of all prevention of waste. The 
one who selects the food must understand the use of the right 
kinds of food so that the body may make the very best use of 
the food eaten. For this reason people must learn what the 
body needs and what nutrients are in food materials, so that 
nothing will be wasted. Food is also wasted when it is spoiled 
in cooking, so those who handle the food in the home must 
learn how to prepare it. If food is not well seasoned or 
cooked, it is apt to be left on the table and so wasted. If it is 
carelessly handled and not kept clean, it spoils more quickly, so 
for this reason and because dirty foods carry disease, cleanli- 
ness is a necessity. 

The next conservation problem is the saving of surplus food 
(the material that is not needed for immediate use). The 
methods usually employed are canning and drying, and so 
everywhere people are being taught how to can and dry. 

Boys and girls may help in both ways to conserve food. 
Through their physiology they are taught what kinds of food 
to eat — they must remember to ask for what they can eat and 
no more — all food they take on their plates they must eat, so 
that none will be wasted. The boys and girls of our public 
schools can thousands of cans of fruit and vegetables every 
year. They form clubs to learn how and then collect their cans 
to sell. 

362 



FOODS AND COOKERY 363 



I. FUEL 
Fuel is necessary for the cooking of food. 

i. Wood and Charcoal 

103 Wood was doubtless the first fuel used for the preparation of food 
and even now in many regions it is our most economical and 
most available fuel supply. See chapter on Wood. 

2. Coal 

It was a great day for the human race when the discovery was made 
that certain stones (coal) would burn. It is interesting to consider how 
much of our material civilization has depended upon the heat developed 
from the burning of coal. The mining of coal is one of our greatest 
industries. 

129 A train load of coal with different sizes in separate cars, Conneaut, 
Ohio. This is the bituminous or soft coal. It burns freely but 
with considerable smoke and soot. 
74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. The surface dirt is removed and 
great beds of coal, sometimes thirty, forty or more feet in depth 
are found. The coal in this region is the hard or anthracite 
coal. It burns with great heat but with little smoke. 

76 Miner drilling and laborer loading black diamonds, Scranton, Pa. 

This shows clearly the bright, shiny character of the anthracite 
coal. 

77 Car of anthracite coal on cage at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 
79 Shipping anthracite coal, Ashley, Pa. Showing different sizes 

in the various cars. Anthracite coal is graded more carefully 
than soft or bituminous coal. 

3. Coke 

68 Coke is made from soft coal in something of the same way that 
charcoal is prepared from wood. It is a good fuel, giving a 
strong heat, without smoke. 

4. Peat 

378 Peat is a fuel made by the accumulation of plants in bogs or 
swamps. The bogs are drained, the peat is cut in layers and 
dried in the sun. It is then burned largely in open fireplaces 
such as are represented by scenes 113 and 372. It is a poor type 
of fuel. 

5. Oil and Gas 

69, 70, 122, 123 These are very useful fuels and are taken from the 
earth in great quantities. They usually occur at considerable 
depth, wells often being drilled from 3,000 to 7,000 feet deep. 
Oil and gas occur in about the same regions; so in drilling they 
cannot always tell which they will secure. Sometimes nothing 
is found after great expense has been incurred. 



364 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

Natural gas usually is found having considerable pressure, so that it 
flows freely from the well and through the pipes to the place of con- 
sumption. When the pressure is not strong enough, pumps are used to 
force it through the pipes. 

Oil as it comes from the well is known as crude petroleum. In this 
form it is not of much use for domestic fuel ; but as fuel for the boilers 
of ocean steamships it is much in favor. 

The products secured by refining crude petroleum are of considerable 
value as domestic fuels, the most valuable for this purpose being gaso- 
line and kerosene. These, like natural gas, are especially desirable for 
summer cooking as they may be started quickly, give a good fire and 
may be extinguished when the cooking is completed. 

II. FOODSTUFFS 

No countiy in the world is so rich as America in the amount and 
variety of its foodstuffs. It furnishes by far the greater part of its own 
food and is able to export great quantities to other countries. It is 
true that the people of the United States, living in such plenty, have 
become very extravagant. With the opening of the World's War there 
came a nation-wide movement to study foods and to use them more 
economically. 

i. Meat 
The people in America depend largely on meat for the protein or 
muscle building foods. No other group of people, except perhaps the 
Esquimaux, eat so much flesh, and it is probable that in many cases 
more meat is used than is desirable. Meat furnishes fat and mineral 
elements as well as protein but contains practically no starch or sugar. 
For this reason, it is usually served with potatoes or some other food 
material high in starch. 

183 Thrifty and contented hogs in rich alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 
589 Range sheep, an important source of Australian wealth. 
185 Feeding Hereford cattle, Manhattan, Kan. Henry Clay of Ken- 
tucky brought the first Herefords into America. They are a 
good beef cattle. Shorthorns are the heaviest of the beef breeds, 
and Herefords rank next in weight. 

140 This is a view of cattle in the pens of the Union Stock Yards in 

Chicago, the meat packing center of the world. This plant was 
begun in 1865. It now covers 500 acres of ground. 

141 The animals are taken from the pens and are marched single file 

into the slaughtering gangways. The various processes of bleed- 
ing, skinning and dressing take place in rapid order. Every 
process is inspected by a federal meat inspector. In this picture 
is shown the last process, the washing of the beef with boiling 
water. 

142 Splitting backbones and final inspection of hogs before placing 

them in refrigerator rooms. 

143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling in preparation for 

market, Chicago, 111. 






FOODS AND COOKERY 365 

144 Making link sausages with aid of machines which stuff ten feet 

per second. 

145 Washing and tagging freshly killed lambs, Chicago, 111. 

56 Chicken meat is prized almost the world over. 
216 Geese furnish very palatable meat. 

72 The woodcock is prized as a game bird. 

2. Milk 
Milk is a remarkable food material because of the number of nu- 
trients found — fat, protein, sugar, mineral and growth producing ele- 
ments. It has a large proportion of water and is especially adapted to 
the child's needs. " A quart of milk per child per day " is a good rule. 
The care of milk is of great importance because it carries diseases such 
as typhoid, diphtheria, etc. The heating of milk at a low temperature 
known as pasteurization is required in most large cities at present to 
prevent the spread of contagious diseases through the milk. 
159 Groups of modern dairy barns and herd of Holstein cattle, Wis- 
consin. 

57 Milking scene in modern dairy, New Jersey. 

45 Washing 1,000 pounds of freshly churned butter. 

411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. A large part of 
the peasants of southern Europe also depend on goats' milk 
and some of the finest cheeses, such as Roquefort, are made 
from goats' milk. 

413 Laplanders milking reindeer, Norway. 

403 Dutch farm hands milking Holstein Friesian cattle near Rotter- 
dam, Holland. The Holstein gives great quantities of milk. 
The Dutch have a great name as butter and cheese makers. 

Various Means of Distributing Milk 
339 Native method of distributing milk unadulterated in the narrow 

streets of La Guaira, Venezuela. 
487 Quaint dairymaids delivering milk in earthenware jars suspended 

on poles in Kief, Russia. If you want a drink of milk, you can 

be served instantly. 
396 Milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. 

46 Automatic machine for filling and capping bottles of milk. Closed 

bottles such as these allow clean, pure milk to be delivered. 

3. Oysters 

In nutritive value, oysters resemble milk, having about the same pro- 
portion of water. The difference in price is paid for flavor and scarcity 
and not for food value. There is some danger of transmitting disease 
through oysters if they are grown in impure water or carelessly handled, 
so precautions must be taken to prevent contamination. If oysters are 
cooked too long or at too high a temperature they become tough and 
undesirable. 

86 Oysters are caught by dragnets or by long racks. Shucking con- 
sists merely of removing the shells. This is done by a stroke 



366 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

of a hammer or a knife. The shucked oysters then go to the 
packing room. 

4. Fish 

Fish is such a perishable type of food that much of it must be pre- 
served before it is sent to market. The most common methods are 
canning and curing. 

Salmon is one of the most valuable of the food fish and one of the 
most important fishery products. The great bulk of the catch is canned. 
Salmon is higher in food value than most fish, due to the amount of fat 
it contains. 

Fish is cured by soaking in brine or packing in salt and then drying. 
In preparing it for the table it must first be soaked to remove some of 
the salt and then is usually cooked in water. Codfish contains protein 
but very little fat and should be served with some starchy food, such 
as potatoes. Fat is usually added in its preparation. 

226 You are here shown the nets which are used for catching salmon. 

227 In this picture the salmon are being prepared for canning. It 

shows the size of the salmon. 

531 Fish is a large part of the diet of the lapanese people. It is pre- 
served by drying. 
13 Codfish sometimes grow to be as much as five feet in length. The 
fish are cleaned, salted and placed on platforms to dry. 

244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. Dried fish is a very 
important article of diet among primitive people in cold regions. 

5- Eggs 

The egg industry in the United States is of great importance, the 
amount of money involved being- equal to from one-half to one-third 
the value of the wheat crop. They are one of our most important 
sources of food. They are rich in mineral salts, protein and the fat is 
of a type especially adapted to the needs of growing children. A dozen 
eggs may be considered as approximately equal to two pounds of meat, 
and for children and invalids are more desirable than meat. 
56 Hens' nests should be kept clean. In this picture is shown the 
white leghorn in a laying house, Corning egg farm, New Jersey. 
375 Fresh eggs are sold in almost every market in the world. 
583 The eggs of gannets are eagerly sought in South Africa and in 
the lands bordering the far North Atlantic Ocean where they 
are also found. 

6. Cereal Grains 
Cereals furnish more nutrients for the great majority of people than 
any other type of food material. Some type is raised in all countries, so 
thev are easily procured. They are high in nutritive value, have very 
little waste and keen well. Thev are not palatable when eaten raw and 
so are practically always cooked. 

All of them contain starch in quantity as well as considerable fiber 
and so require long cooking. Wheat and rye contain a protein sub- 
stance which will hold air and on heating sets and can, therefore, be 
used for making loaves of bread. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 367 

a. Wheat and Barley 
Wheat is the most important member of the cereal group, since it is 
best adapted for bread making. The hard wheats produced in the 
Northwest are especially desirable for this purpose. Flour produced 
by primitive methods of grinding contain more of the mineral and 
growth producing elements than the white flour of our markets. It is 
darker in color and much coarser, so that the bread made from it is 
dark and coarse-grained. 

Wheat contains starch, protein, mineral and growth promoting ele- 
ments but is low in fat and water content. 

177 After the wheat is cut and made into sheaves, it is taken to the 
threshing machine. Here the grain is separated out from the 
straw. 
199 This barley was raised in Colorado by the system called dry farm- 
ing. One of the first requirements of dry farming is to select 
a soil that will absorb much rainfall and hold it. 
218 In the Western States are great wheat fields and most of the work 
of gathering the crop is done by machinery. This picture shows 
the combined reaper and thresher. 
357 The wheat in England is cut in similar way to that in the United 
States, and most of the machinery used has been made in the 
United States. 
498 Wouldn't this be a slow method of preparing wheat for bread? 
Notice the heavy stones used to crush the grain. 

b. Corn 

Corn is a staple article of food in parts of Africa, United States, Italy 
and the Balkan regions. It is a wholesome and nutritious food, high in 
starch, low in fat and mineral salt and while it contains about ten per 
cent, protein, it is not of the type that will hold air and form a loaf as 
does wheat and rye. It also contains considerable fiber, so must be 
cooked for a long time. Since the fat and protein are rather low, it is 
desirable to combine corn preparations with meat or cheese or eggs, 
and add fat of some kind. 

184 The United States produces five-sixths of the corn crop of the 

world. 
136 By the use of machinery the corn is cut and made into shocks. 
160 Sometimes the corn is not taken from the stalk but is cut up by 

machinery and placed in a silo for cattle feed in the winter. 

c. Oats 

The oats used for food in America are served in the form of por- 
ridge as breakfast food. In the milling less of outer layers are removed 
than in most grains, and the greater part of the germ is left, so that 
oats are somewhat richer in protein and fat than the ordinary cereal. 
Because of the starch and fiber they need long, slow cooking. 
147 Oats will grow on soil that is not rich enough to produce some of 
the other cereal grains. The men here seen are gathering oats 
which have been cut with a binder. The grain will be threshed 
from the straw. 



368 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

d. Rice 

Rice is one of the staple cereal foods for about half the population of 
the earth. India produces one-half of the rice supply of the world. 
China produces one-fourth and Japan one-eighth. The Japanese 
farmers are busy setting out rice plants. They are set out in fields 
which have been flooded with water. In the United States the rice 
is sown by drills just as wheat is, and when growing looks like wheat 
or oats. It contains large amounts of starch, very little fat and pro- 
tein. For this reason it is frequently combined with meat, cheese and 
eggs, and fats of various kinds are added in the preparation of rice 
dishes. 

As ordinarily sold, the rice is polished, and this process removes a 
large part of the valuable mineral salt. The so-called brown rice has 
not been subjected to this process and is, therefore, to be preferred as 
a food. 

104 Rice is a water plant, so the fields must be irrigated. 

105 The men and women are busy hoeing rice in a field in South 

Carolina. 
529 In Japan the rice is cut by a sickle. Rice straw is used to make 

mats, bags and ropes. 
527 A primitive method of threshing. 
550 Heavy mallets are used to hull out the rice grains. 

7. Legumes 

The legume family, including beans, peas and peanuts, stands next to 
cereals in importance as foods. They are especially valued for their 
protein and should be used, therefore, as substitutes for meat, eggs, or 
cheese. They also contain considerable starch and mineral salt, but all 
except the peanut are low in fat. For this reason fat is commonly 
added in their preparation (viz. pork and beans). Because of the 
amount of fiber present they require long, slow cooking. 

Peanuts are usually regarded as nuts and eaten as an accessor}'. 
They are very high in food value and eaten in quantity may prove 
indigestible on this account. They should be mixed with other food ma- 
terials and served as a part of the meal. 

562 In Egypt a very old method is used in threshing out the beans. 
118 The peanuts grow in the ground like potatoes. The plants are 
pulled from the ground, dried and then the nuts are picked from 
the roots. 

8. Nuts 

Nuts contain large amounts of fat and protein and may, therefore, 
cause digestive disturbances if eaten in quantity as an accessory to the 
diet. They are also valued for their mineral matter and may well be 
used as a substitute for meat, cheese or eggs. 

a. Almonds 
234 Almond trees look like peach trees. The fruit from which we 
get the almonds is left to dry on the trees. Then the shriveled 



FOODS AND COOKERY 369 

fruit is taken off, the seed is removed and put into sacks or 

barrels. 

b. Coconut 
The coconut is most familiar to us as food in the grated and dried 
form, and is mostly used in pastry and confectionery. It is very high 
in fat and contains some starch. Sugar is frequently added to it in 
drying. It is a staple article of food for many of the natives in the 
tropics. 
551 The coconut is covered with a thick husk which is removed before 

the nuts are shipped. 

9. Potatoes 

Potatoes belong to the class of starchy vegetables and are valued 
both for starch and mineral salt. They probably owe their popularity 
to their mild flavor which does not become tiresome, and is easily 
varied, and to the fact that they keep well and are usually rather low 
in price. A large part of the nutrients lie next to the outside layer 
and in careless paring may be lost. It is therefore desirable to cook 
them in their skins as far as possible. 

166 Potato digging machines are used to dig the potatoes in Minnesota, 
which is a leading state in potato production. 

10. Sugar 

The term sugar is usually applied to the sweet substance obtained 
from the sugar cane or sugar beet. There are, however, a number of 
other varieties found in fruits, honey, etc. The product obtained from 
sugar cane, sugar beets and sugar maple is identical, providing it is 
refined to the same degree, and is sold usually under the name granu- 
lated sugar. It is one of the purest food products on the market — 
concentrated food which is easily assimilated by the body if not eaten 
in excess. Because of its concentration, it is desirable to mix it with 
other nutrients in the diet. 

a. Process of Making Sugar from Beets 

419 A large supply of the sugar in Europe is from the sugar beet. In 
this picture we see women weeding a field of sugar beets. 

198 In this picture we see a field of sugar beets. Colorado has become 
the leading state in the production of beet sugar. 

270 The sugar beets are white, large and very sweet. After the beets 

are gathered they are stored in sheds and there are carefully 
washed. 

271 The beets are sliced and the juice extracted with water. 

b. Process of Making Sugar from Cane 

332 Here we see a field in Peru that is being prepared for the plant- 

ing of sugar cane. The cane was brought into Peru by Span- 
iards. 

333 In this picture we see the cane plant and the way it is planted. 
258 When the sugar cane is ripe, it is cut in the same way as corn 



370 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

but the leaves are pulled from the stalks. The juice is squeezed 
out when the stalks are run through large rollers. 

35 The raw sugar is brown and moist and, by refining, the color is 
changed and the crystals become larger. Granulated sugar is 
about ninety-nine per cent. pure. 

34 The loaf sugar is made by molding the granulated sugar. In this 
picture we see the large trays of loaf sugar after it has been 
dried out in the drying kiln. 
130 In the northern part of the United States maple sugar is pro- 
duced to some extent. 

ii. Green Vegetables 
Green vegetables are valued in the diet especially for their mineral 
salt. They are largely made up of water and woody fiber and may 
contain small amounts of starch and sugar. 

The types that can be eaten raw, such as celery, are especially 
desirable, since none of their mineral matter will be lost in prepara- 
tion. 
149 Harvesting celery blanched by boards in Michigan's famous celery 

fields, Kalamazoo, Mich. 
83 Garden vegetables of all kinds are valuable food and large quan- 
tities can be raised on relatively little space. 
375 Fresh cabbage, beets, turnips, potatoes and so on are offered for 
sale. 

12. Fruits 
Fruits are especially valued in the diet because of their mineral salts. 
They also contain characteristic flavoring substances and organic acids 
which make them valuable as appetizers. Sugars of different types are 
found in most ripe fruits and a few, such as the banana, contain quan- 
tities of starch. 

The water content is high except in the case of raisins, dates, figs and 
other dried fruits. When these are eaten as purchased and not cooked, 
they form a concentrated food material. 
175 The apple is an important fruit. It contains sugar, starch, mineral 

matter and a large amount of water. 
85 Peaches are regarded as among the most valuable of all orchard 
fruits for evaporating, preserving and canning. 
236 In this picture we see the Tokay grape, which is grown abundantly 
in California. They are large and firm. Grapes are used for 
making raisins, grape juice and various wines. Raisins are 
grapes that have been carefully dried. 
294 The banana is more like a vegetable because it contains a large 
amount of starch. The food value of a banana is high. In the 
countries where the fruit is grown, the natives usually cook the 
banana before eating it. Banana flour is used to some extent to 
make cakes and bread. 
108 Pineapples are planted in fields of sand. The fruit gets its name 
because of its resemblance to the cone of a pine tree. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 371 

237 Oranges are valuable for their mineral salts and the juice is 

especially beneficial to young children. 
240 Olives both ripe and green are eaten. The oil is used by people 
of the Mediterranean countries instead of butter and animal 
fats. 

238 In this picture we see the beautiful orange blossoms and the large 

fruit on the trees. 

437 Care must be taken in picking the oranges so the skin is not 

bruised. 
47 The cantaloupe was given its name in Italy where it was first 
grown in Europe. It has become a favorite fruit in this coun- 
try. 

137 The pumpkin is a member of the gourd family and is a valuable 
food. It may be successfully canned and used in the winter 
time. 

13. Cocoa and Chocolate 

Cacao beans are roasted, crushed, the germ and hulls removed, and 
then thoroughly ground, which reduces the mass to a thin paste. This 
paste when cool forms the cakes of unsweetened chocolate. This 
contains some starch and considerable fat, so the food value is high. 
Part of the fat may be removed by pressure and the residue finally 
powdered is known as cocoa. Since the fat content is here lowered, the 
food value is not so high as in the chocolate. 

Both chocolate and cocoa may be combined with milk into beverages 
which are excellent for children. 

303 It is from the fruit of the cacao trees that our commercial choco- 
late is made. 

14. Coffee 

The coffee beverage is made from the ground roasted coffee beans. 
It is nearly all water of course, but contains very small amounts of 
flavoring materials and a stimulating substance knows as caffeine. 
The coffee beverage has no food value except from the cream and 
sugar that may be added. Because of its stimulating effect on the 
nervous system, coffee should never be given to children. 

302 In the wild state the coffee trees grow from 20 to 30 feet tall, 
but if the tree is trimmed back the berries are easier to pick. 
The berries are dark red and inside of the pulp is found the two 
half beans with flat sides together. 

310 The berries are picked, pulp is mashed and seeds are washed in 

vats. The green wet coffee is spread on cement floors to dry. 

311 After the berries are dried — it takes about two weeks — they are 

placed in sacks holding about 132 pounds. 
295 Coffee is shipped dried but green. It is roasted usually in the 
country to which it is sent. Brazil grows about three-fourjths of 



372 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

the world's coffee. Santos, Brazil, is the greatest coffee port in 
the world. 



15. Salt 

42 Most of our salt is made from brine obtained from wells. The 
brine is placed in large vats. The sun and air evaporate the 
water and the salt is raked out. Salt is used to give flavor to 
food and is often used in too large amounts. 
153 In this picture we see the refined salt being packed into barrels. 

III. PREPARING AND SERVING FOOD 
Quite as much food value depends upon the method of cooking and 

serving as upon the food itself. It is well known that food eaten 

quietly and pleasantly digests more easily than that eaten hastily or 

where the feeling was disagreeable. American homes are so supplied 

with materials prepared for cooking and means of serving that we 

sometimes fail to appreciate our advantages. 

550 Pounding rice for breakfast. The menu of primitive people must 
be very limited for they cannot get foods prepared for cook- 
ing. These people, for instance, get their rice in the husk. 
Their cooking implements are of the crudest sort. 

498 Women grinding wheat. Instead of the fine flour your mothers 
buy all ready for use, these women must begin their bread 
making with the grain. Their flour will not be white but it will 
contain all the nutritive value of the grain. 

410 Making Norwegian flat bread. Can you imagine the thin hard 
bread of flour and water, baked two or three times a year in- 
stead of the light bread which comes fresh to your table several 
times a week? With so few materials to work with, house- 
keeping is very laborious. 

292 Tortilla making. Cooking though primitive may be clean, as you 
can see. Here again the woman begins her work with the corn 
on the cob. Compare this kitchen with your own and tell 
where you think the better results can be obtained. 

341 The city baker of Caracas is perhaps as clean as many of our 
own bakers. One wishes there were a law in Caracas as in 
many of our own cities to compel bakers to wrap their bread 
in paper before it is carried through the streets. 

372 In Burns' home you see facilities for cooking vastly superior to 

those of the bread makers in Norway or Salvador. Notice the 
table and dishes for serving in this cottage. 

373 A highland home. Tea is being served. Notice there is no at- 

tempt at a table cloth, the dishes are few and simple, yet the 

cleanliness and orderliness, and the evident good manners of 

the two old ladies, make the tea seem very appetizing. 

468 Quite different are these tables with their embroidered cloths set 

* out in the street where they will catch dirt and dust. It does 



FOODS AND COOKERY 373 

not seem quite consistent to be eating and having your boots 
blacked at the same time. 
33 Dining room. Not every one has beautiful furniture and china 
and silverware for a dining room ; yet everyone can have a clean 
room and a well set table. Food really tastes better when 
daintily served and eaten in a well-bred manner. 
59 Pretty dishes are so cheap now-a-days that very poor people may 
set attractive tables. Better designs in decoration are now used 
in the cheaper wares. Dishes do not have to be expensive to 
be in good taste. 

534 The Japanese people give ideal service. Notice how simple is 
this arrangement for serving tea, how quiet and cool. The blos- 
soms of the trees furnish beauty. 

152 One of these men carries a lunch box. Thousands of men (62 
to 67, 134, 135) carry lunches every day. A lunch should be 
packed as carefully and daintily as a table is set. Each thing 
should be carefully wrapped in waxed paper so the tired worker 
can get all the possible refreshment from the clean, attractive 
food. 

211 Notice the ovens in which baking is done. 

519 An open air restaurant in China. Chopsticks take the place of 
knives and forks. 



31. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 

By ANNA M. COOLEY, B.S. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION, 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

Assisted by EDITH P. CHACE, B.S., M.A. 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS 

STATE COLLEGE, PENNSYLVANIA 

The teacher of clothing and textiles expecting to use the 
" 600 Set " to advantage should have a comprehensive and ac- 
curate knowledge of the various subdivisions of the classifica- 
tion under the headings of Textiles and of Clothing. The 
teacher can then select quickly the best pictures to be used for 
any topic bearing on the particular field. She should notice 
also the classification of this part of the field of household 
arts (or home economics) in its relationship to the whole, to 
the home, its industries, its food and management. It is only 
through having a connected idea of the whole that the. pic- 
tures of this group can be used most advantageously. 

The stereographs as well as the lantern slides will be found 
of great help in teaching the origin and manufacture of ma- 
terials, the uses of the various textiles, industrial occupations 
of the textile industry, and the costumes of various countries, 
both modern and historical. This means of instruction en- 
ables the children to obtain a complete visualization of the sub- 
jects which previously the teacher has only described or pos- 
sibly at times illustrated with small pictures or other devices 
upon which she has been forced to rely and to secure through 
her own initiative. These helps are vital to the best instruc- 
tion and pleasing to the children. The views in this set give 
a concrete idea of the fibers and materials used for various 
articles of clothing and the methods employed by the differ- 
ent races of the world in procuring, manufacturing and dis- 
tributing them. 

An interesting comparative study of the methods of differ- 
ent peoples along the lines of textile manufacture is, therefore, 
possible and highly desirable, for it leads to definiteness of 
thought in relation to the peoples of other nations and the 

374 



TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 375 

sources of many of our industrial supplies used in the making 
of clothing and other articles. If woman is to be an intelligent 
consumer of textile materials, she should know more about the 
source of those materials, their manufacture and means of 
distribution, and their relationship to the cost of living. An 
interesting study of the homes of other lands is developed in 
this comparative study of textile manufacture and of uses of 
clothing, and should be valuable to the children in giving them 
appreciation and ideals for the best type of home in a democ- 
racy, and complete understanding of the way in which the 
races of the world provide themselves with the necessities of 
life, clothing, shelter and food. 

The slides and pictures can be used most advantageously in 
preparation for visits to museums or places of manufacture. 
The things to be seen should be well outlined by the class be- 
fore the visit. The use of the slides makes this familiarity 
possible. The pupil because of this introductory study will 
gain more from the excursion. 

In places where there are no museums or mills, these pic- 
tures are a positive necessity. The depth of the stereographic 
picture gives ideas of reality and action which can not be ob- 
tained from any flat picture however good. In such places the 
" 600 Set " will be a real museum. And even where there are 
manufacturing plants, children as a rule do not go into them. 
They hear them discussed, but do not really know them. 
These pictures will make clear the children's hazy ideas and 
will bring them into a better understanding of the life about 
them. 

I. Textiles 
A. PRODUCTION 

The principal textile fibers belong either to the vegetable or to the 
animal class. There are in addition the mineral fibers as asbestos and 
also certain artificial fibers which are vegetable, mineral or animal in 
origin. 

1. VEGETABLE FIBERS 

These are obtained from various parts of plants — the leaves, stem, 
seed pod, etc. 

(i) Cotton 

This is the soft covering attached to the seeds in the boll. 
207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 
117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 
124 Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin. 



376 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

(2) Hemp 

The leaves and also the stem of these plants furnish this fiber. 

a. Sisal 
571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Africa. 

289 Ucnnequin, the wealth of Yucatan, from which sisal fiber is pro- 
duced, Mexico. 

b. Manila 
552 Manila hemp industry. Stripping the trees, Philippines. 

(3) Bark 

The covering of trees and some fruits is used for making cloth. 
570 Peeling bark for bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 

(4) Pina 

108 Pina fiber comes from the leaves of the pineapple, Florida. 

(5) Palm 

The leaves of this plant are very useful for matting and coarse 
textiles. 

566, 567 Some Egyptian palm trees. 
259 Papaya and palm trees, Hawaii. 
249 A street in Panama showing palm trees. 
551 Gathering coconuts, the fiber of which is used for mats and 

coarse textiles, Philippines. 
574 An east African palm tree. 

2. ANIMAL FIBERS 
These are obtained from a great variety of animals. 

(1) Silk 

The tiny silkworm furnishes this fiber. 

536 Silkworm incubator, Japan. 

537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silkworm, Japan. 

538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the young silkworms. 

539 Silkworm cocoons in their nest. 

(2) Wool 

Sheep of many varieties furnish wool. 
173 Choice Shropshire, Oxford, and Cotswold sheep in pasture. 
190, 589 Sheep grazing on range. 
480 Shepherds and their flocks, Greece. 

(3) Hair 

The hair of many animals is used in the manufacture of textiles for 
clothing, house furnishing materials, bagging and other purposes. 

(a) Horse 
This hair is used with pthers in making a strong wiry cloth known 
as horse hair cloth. 



TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 377 

138 Champion team of Percherons, Indiana. 
398 Belgian draft horses, Belgium. 

(b) Goats 

Some goats have long silky hair and others wiry hair. The wiry 
hair is used in making such materials as alpaca, mohair and brillian- 
tine. The softer goat hair furnishes us with cashmeres. 
411 Milking the goats, Norway. 
447 Swiss mountain goats. 

(c) Cattle 

The hair from cattle is mixed with other fibers and used in making 
coarse felts for roofing, covering steam pipes and boilers ; it is also 
used for stuffing cushions and is woven into coarse blankets. 
140 From the Kansas plains. 

185 Splendid Hereford cattle. 
317 Argentina's famous cattle. 

186 Cattle on ranch, Kansas. 

(d) Camel 

Hair from the camel is used in the manufacture of some clothing 
and the coarser hairs for bagging and coarse yarns. 

564 Camels at Nile. 

565 Camel at Sphinx, Egypt. 

518 Bactrian camels have long hair. 

(e) Llama 

This animal helps to furnish us with strong lustrous fibers for dress 
goods. 
335 The llama of Bolivia. 

B. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 

In modern times very much of the work of manufacturing textiles 
is done in great factories where the labor is highly specialized. Hand 
labor still persists where labor is cheap and in isolated communities. 

I. VEGETABLE FIBERS 

The fibers from the plants must pass through many manufacturing 
processes before they are ready to be woven into cloth. 

(1) COTTON 
From the seed pod or cotton boll. 

(a) Ginning 
This process removes the seeds from the fiber. 

124 Awaiting their turn at the cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 

125 Cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 



378 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

(b) Baling 

Making into compact bales of about 500 lbs. for transportation. 
119 Bales of cotton ready for shipping, New Orleans, La. 

(c) Carding 

This process removes dirt and prepares for the next step in manu- 
facture. 
286 Carding room, cotton mills, Mexico. 

(d) Spinning 

Drawing out and twisting fibers together to make a continuous yarn. 
563 Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 

14 Spinning cotton yarn, Lawrence, Mass. 

(e) Printing 

Decorating the material by means of a stamped design. 

15 Copying designs on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Law- 

rence, Mass. 

16 General view in large printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, 

Mass. 

(2) LINEN 
This is obtained from the stem of the flax plant. 

268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 

269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. 

(3) OTHER VEGETABLE FIBERS 

(a) Bark 

570 Peeling bark for making bark cloth, Uganda, Africa. 

(b) Hemp — Rope Making 
553 Interior of native rope factory, Philippines. 

2. ANIMAL FIBERS 
Animal fibers must also be prepared and woven. 

(1) SILK 
This must be cleansed, twisted and woyen. 

(a) Spinning 
The silk fiber may be taken from the cocoon in two ways. It may 
be reeled by hand as is done in lapan ; or it may be made from " waste " 
by machinery, the method commonly used in America. 
540 Reeling silk from cocoons, Japan. 
22 Weighing and sorting raw skeins (reeled silk), S. Manchester, 
Conn, 



TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 379 

23 First drawing or straightening of fibers (spnn silk), S. Man- 

chester, Conn. 

24 Roving frame, in which the thread is made, S. Manchester, Conn. 

(b) Weaving 

Making the cloth. 

53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth, Paterson, N. J. 

54 Weaving room, Paterson, N. J. 

55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, 

N.J. 
541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants. 



(2) WOOL 
(a) Sorting 

Wool must be sorted and washed before it is spun. 
17 Sorting wool after cleansing "and washing, Lawrence, Mass. 

(b) Carding and Spinning 

Straightening the fibers and twisting them into thread. 
409 Carding and spinning wool, Norway. 
506 Spinning and weaving shawls, Kashmir, India. 
81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, 
Philadelphia. 

(c) Weaving — Making Cloth 
The hand made shawls and carpets of the orientals are often won- 
derfully beautiful. 
506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. 

(3) HAIR 
272 Scraping hair from hides. 

C. USES OF TEXTILES 

Textiles are used for many purposes besides clothing. 

1. FOR CLOTHING THE PEOPLES OF MANY COUNTRIES 
See II. Clothing. 

2. FOR THE HOME IN ITS FURNISHINGS 

33 Domestic art dining room (table doilies, curtains, rugs). 
468 Table cloths woven by Bulgarian women. 

417 Council Room, Royal Palace, Stockholm, showing woven wool 
tapestries and upholstered furniture. 



380 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

3. FOR OTHER PURPOSES 

(i) Paper Making 

19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums, paper mill, Massa- 

chusetts. 

20 Inspecting paper delivered by machines, Massachusetts. 
94 Making paper money. 

(2) Tents 

168 " Brought forth food and set before them." 
263 Indian basket weaving. 
265 Iroquois Indian tents. 
585 Pavilion for officers reviewing troops. 

(3) Awnings 
385' Awnings over market booths. 
535 Idyllic spot where Japanese maids delight to stroll; the houses 

have awnings. 
406 Round Tower, Copenhagen. The shops are protected by awnings. 
213 The houses need the protection of awnings. 
100 Awning for boat, Hampton Roads, Va. 

(4) Sails 

27 Sailing vessels passing under Brooklyn Bridge. 
514 Block of tenements, China. People living in boats. 
525 A Japanese sail boat. 

(5) Sacks 
35 Filling and sewing sacks of sugar. 

119 Covering for cotton bales. 

148 Building dikes of sand bags. 

295 Coffee from Porto Rico shipped in bags. 

(6) Blankets 
188 Cowboy, bronco corral, etc. 
158 The Indian blanket. 
204 Ute Indian blanket. 
281 The Mexican's blanket. 

(7) Trappings 
505 Stately elephants on parade. 

565 Camel trappings. 

494 A sheik and his body guard. 

(8) Umbrellas 

548 Carrying an umbrella on the way to market, Island of Luzon, P. I. 
387 Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany, stands pro- 
tected by umbrellas. 
501 Umbrellas of India. 
60 Protecting the bathers, Atlantic City. 
510 Various kinds of umbrellas. 

(9) Flags and Banners 
260 With the flag goes the public school. 
585 Review of troops, Australia. 



TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 381 

481 Market scene in Finland. 

100 Some of the great warships in Hampton Roads. 

514 Each ship flies its flag. 

(io) Ropes 

400, 559 Rigging of vessel; 502 Elephant hunt. 

(n) Fishing Nets 
226 First haul of the season. 

(12) Wagon Covers 
71 Wagon used to haul ammunition. 

(13) Mosquito Net 
245 Placer mining in Alaska. 

II. Clothing 

Modern Clothing of Many Lands 

Clothing of different countries naturally varies according to materials 
obtainable, climate, taste, custom and tradition. In these days of rapid 
travel and easy communication, variations are disappearing. Native 
costumes are being displaced by the style of clothes worn in America 
and western Europe. 
8, 22, 29, 31, 146, 235 United States ; 273, 275 Canada ; 305 Brazil ; 
315 Argentina; 324 Chile; 340 Venezuela; 351, 355 England; 
366 Scotland ; 375 Ireland ; 404 Copenhagen ; 423, 424 France ; 
438 Spain; 443 Switzerland ; 452 Italy; 464 Austria; 474 Turkey; 
486 Russia; 516 China; 541 Japan; 557 Tunis; 581, 582 S. 
Africa ; 585, 590 Australia. In all these views will be found 
men and women dressed in such clothes as we are used to see- 
ing, varied, in wool, cotton and silk according to use and climate. 
1, 3, 5, 11, 12, 16, 42, 44, 46, 47, 57, 69, 75, 99, 105, 107, 108, 115, 117, 
124, 125, 130, 143, 149, 153, 156, 226 United States; 271, 272 
Canada; 280, 284 Mexico; 295, 297 Cuba; 310 Brazil; 319 Ar- 
gentina ; 327 Chile ; 333 Peru ; 339 Venezuela ; 357 England ; 378 
Ireland; 388, 393 Germany; 437 Spain; 477 Greece; 488 Russia; 
579 S. Africa. Among laboring people also the same general 
type of clothing is seen varying in its material and quantity to 
suit the needs of the people. Notice that the material changes 
with the climate. 
15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 40, 41, 117, 105 United States; 268, 269 Can- 
ada; 292 Salvador; 302 Guadeloupe; 319, Argentina; 338 Ven- 
ezuela; 411 Norway; 419 Sweden; 431 France; 541 Japan; 548, 
550 Philippines. These clothes, even though some of them 
look like caricatures of others, show a similarity which proves 
how very adaptable our clothes are. They may be made of 
any material whatsoever and having no parts hanging loose are 
suited for work. 
65, 66, 156 Men who work in hot places, such as smelting works, 
wear woolen clothing. 



382 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

246 Alaska; 279 Labrador; 343 North Greenland; 413 Lapland; 328 
Magellan Straits. People in very cold countries must wear 
skins and fur for warmth. Woolen cloth and blankets are used 
wherever they are obtainable. 

481 Finland. This picture was taken in summer. 

409, 410 Norwegian women; 418 Swedish girls. Norwegian and 
Swedish people wear a great deal of homespun wool and linen. 

485 Hat and clothes market, Warsaw, Poland. 

498, 555 The orientals have adopted clothing light, loose and cool. 
It may be cotton, wool or silk. 

560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565 In Egypt the loose cotton garment has, 
been the dress from time immemorial. 

494 A sheik ; 566 A bey. The desert night is so cold that desert 
people must have a woolen coat or blanket in which to wrap 
themselves. 

555 Morocco. Wonderful rugs are woven by oriental peoples. They 
are used for beds, for floors and even for tent covering. 

503, 504, 505, 506 The common garments of the poor in India are 
made of cotton. Wealthier people wear silk and velvets. 

506 Kashmir. The mountain people of India are noted for their 
woolen cloths, wonderful shawls and carpets. 

510 In Siam, cotton is the common material. 

519, 520, 521 In China, too, cotton cloth is worn by nearly every one. 
Warmth is obtained by padding. 

528, 529, 530, 532, 536, 537 Japan. The working people wear cotton 
cloth often gaily figured. 

535 The Japanese wear a great deal of silk, too. 

570 Uganda. Bark cloth forms the garments for the negroes of 
Uganda, Africa. 

572 The little clothing worn by these people is probably cotton. Cot- 
ton cloth manufactured in America or England finds its way 
into the remote places of the earth and is worn by savages. 

490 Circassians. Here is a curious mixture of the uses of skins, 
woolen and cotton cloths. 

592 New Guinea. The men wear a loin cloth, the women grass skirts. 
These with bracelets and nose and lip ornaments make a com- 
plete costume. 



32. HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION 

By GRACE SCHERMERHORN, B.S. 

DIRECTOR OF COOKING IN THE NEW YORK CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

FORMERLY DIRECTOR OF PRACTICE TEACHING IN HOME 

ECONOMICS, IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA 

In House Management, we aim to tie together the work done 
in Foods, Clothing and Shelter, dealing with the whole sub- 
ject from the point of view of the home maker. The many 
problems arise, such as the amount of money to be spent and 
how it shall be divided ; the planning of clothing not for one 
but for a whole family ; planning meals that shall be adequate, 
economical and appetizing, at the same time planning for the 
cooking and serving of these meals so that time will be left 
for other necessary duties and pleasures ; systematizing work 
so the family may be better cared for with less time given to 
the machinery of the household ; and a study of labor-saving 
machinery together with easy ways of doing work. Very 
often the other Home Economics courses have not provided 
instruction in many of the duties necessary in keeping a home, 
such as laundering, care and cleaning of the house and its fur- 
nishings, marketing, how to keep accounts, and home care of 
the sick. Under these circumstances, the Home Management 
course must teach the essentials of these subjects so that the 
student may appreciate their value and realize their impor- 
tance. 

Practice houses offer the best laboratory for teaching this 
work, but, since they are rare in our public schools, a very help- 
ful substitute may be found in pictures. The stereograph and 
lantern slides will be found invaluable — especially the stereo- 
graph because of its convenience and moderate price and the 
fact that it is the only picture true to life ; the pupil using it 
becomes a part of the scene. The following list of scenes are 
helpful not only in suggestions of things to be done and to be 
left undone, but they also show the household problems of 
other peoples. 

383 



384 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND ARTS 

Buying Food 

Only as we control market conditions can we control the food for 
the family. The following market scenes show native costumes, food 
containers, transportation facilities and buildings. 

7 Quincy St. market, Boston. 

341 The city baker selling his wares in Venezuela. A marked com- 
parison with our modern methods. 

393 A market in Cologne, Germany. 

395 Vegetable market in Belgium. 

396, 487 Milk delivery — very different from our own methods. 

447 A market in Switzerland. 

466 A market in Serajevo, Bosnia. • 

469 A market in Bulgaria. 

472 Markets in Constantinople. 

481 A fish market in Finland. 

485 A market in Poland. 

548 Market wares. 

555 A market in Morocco. 

572 A market in Africa. 

582 A market in Capetown, Africa. 

Laundering 

Laundering is an important industry that is being taken from the 
American homes by the city laundry. Even in the country we find 
laundries being run in connection with the creameries, so that rural as 
well as city people are being relieved of this task. 
40 Folding and ironing linen collars in a collar factory. 
399 The Holland canals offer water supply for laundering. 
431 Washing clothes in a river. A common method of laundering 

clothes among peasant people. 
455 Clothes are dried in the streets in crowded city districts. 

Household Utensils and Methods of Housework 

33 An attractive dining room where the table is laid with doilies. 
This makes the laundry problem more simple. For the busy 
woman with limited income, paper doilies may be used. 

168 A simple dining service used by the Indians. The squaw prepares 
and serves the meal but does not eat with the men of the family. 

204, 534 Japanese and Indian " baby carriages." 

204 Not many sanitary laws are applied to baby's food and surround- 
ings. 

534 Baby pacifiers are not confined to America alone. 

263 Weaving baskets — a household duty of the squaw because they, 
with pottery, were used as household utensils. Now this is a 
pastime for women. 

385 All sorts of dishes may be bought. 

372 Kitchen in Burns' cottage. A good example of the open fireplace 



HOUSE ADMINISTRATION 385 

that was formerly used for both cooking and heating. Note the 

orderly arrangement of dishes. 
409, 506, 540 Textile industries that are no longer done in the home. 
410 Crude cooking equipment of the Norwegian peasant. 
411, 413 Milking. An industry from which most American women are 

relieved. In pioneer days, however, milking the cows was part 

of most women's daily schedule. Compare the open wooden 

pails used in Norway (411) with the modern sanitary method 

shown in 57. 
550 Hulling rice for breakfast, Philippine. Note the heavy, crude 

utensils. All the girls of the family help with this task. 

House Planning 

An important factor in making housework more easily carried on. 
6, 455 Tenement houses where large families live in one or two 
rooms. Would you prefer a small cottage or this type of house 
if a family could have only one room? 
9 Such a flat roof is often used in crowded city districts in place of 
a yard. 
91, 96 Large, roomy houses but too large for families who cannot 
keep a retinue of servants. 

113, 281, 373, 542 Cottage types which show that houses may be too 
simple for comfort. These houses allow for no modern con- 
veniences and demand that all processes be carried on in one 
room. Under such conditions, sanitation and cleanliness are 
secured only with great labor and effort. 

427 When building houses in rolling country, entrances at different 
levels save running up and down steps. 

513 An apartment house in China. Apartment houses have the ad- 
vantage of having all rooms on one floor. Porches such as seen 
in this picture add much to the comfort of families living in 
apartments. 

514, 546 These floating houses show that water alone is not enough to 
produce cleanliness. Where do the children play who live 
here? 

Water Supply 
Every home must be supplied with plenty of clean water. This 

should be made as accessible as possible for the use of the family. 

168, 564 Primitive methods of water supply. Not only is the cleanli- 
ness questioned but the amount used will always be limited 
when it has to be carried long distances. 

575 Water stored in tanks. With a little extra labor, these tanks 
could be placed high enough so the water might be piped tn the 
kitchen and drawn through a faucet. 

236 In many places, the windmill pumps the water. This may then be 
stored in tanks (575) and easily piped to the house. 

418 The well, if rightly situated, may supply clean water in sparsely 
settled regions — but why not have it piped to the kitchen so 
that with a pump the water can be easily obtained? 



INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

INTRODUCTION 

By CHARLES A. PROSSER, Ph.D. 

DIRECTOR DUNWOODY INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, MINNEAPOLIS, 

MINN. 

Industrial arts have for their purpose the unification of the 
community. Their introduction into the schools marks one of 
the greatest advances in democracy of our age. It was always 
felt that the professions called for education, but that workers 
had no use for it. Now we realize that our industrial life de- 
mands men and women who are highly trained, resourceful 
and broad in outlook and that work itself may be educative. 
These newer ideas are revolutionizing processes of education. 

Words are only the names of things. They mean nothing 
to us unless we have images of the things of which words are 
only the symbols. To see an object and to learn its name is 
to add that name as a permanent possession to one's mind. To 
see or to hear the name and not to understand the object is a 
sad waste of the child's time and energy. Probably no school 
system in the world is more guilty of teaching by the use of 
words unaided by experience and illustration than the American 
Public Schools. This is due to the wonderful development of 
the textbook as an aid to teaching. 

Most of the arguments against the use of textbook material 
alone have their bases in what is known among school men as 
the doctrine of apperception. This doctrine, which is uni- 
versally accepted in theory today (but more often honored in 
the breach than in the observance), holds that the human mind 
learns best when it works from the known to the unknown, 
from the related to the unrelated, from an experience to its in- 
terpretation, from an object to its name, from that in which we 
are interested to that which will explain it, from a picture to 
its explanation. Apperception adds to the bare perception the 
richer significations that are brought by previous preparation 
or broader experience. It teaches that you cannot develop im- 
agination in a child by words. Imagination is the supreme edu- 

386 



INTRODUCTION 387 

cational faculty. It is the imaging of new forms out of old 
visions and experiences. Apperception teaches that children 
are interested in things which they understand, things which 
challenge their effort in moving from what they know to what 
they would like to know. 

The best way to get a clear understanding of any subject, 
such as the silk industry for example, would be to visit Japan, 
see the silk fiber made, then to return to the United States and 
see it manufactured into cloth. This is impossible because of 
the cost in money and time. 

The worst method, and the one we are using today, all too 
frequently, is to depend upon the printed word to convey ideas 
to our school children when they have no background with 
which to apperceive the meaning. The best schoolroom 
method, in fact the only possible method, is to bring about a 
combination, a cooperation between the textbook and the sup- 
plementary devices to illustrate and to explain. 

The number of pictures which can be printed to illustrate 
any subject must be limited by the size of the page, the picture 
and the book. They must, practically, be presented in the 
order of the paging. The stereographs are not hampered by 
such limitations and the teacher can control the order of their 
presentation. They are given in relief and in perspective from 
which pupils gain correct ideas of the relative sizes and dis- 
tances. The scenes presented by the stereographs are more in- 
teresting than the pictures of a book because they are more 
complete, more exact, more detailed and therefore, more strik- 
ing. These features make the study of the stereographs much 
easier from both the physical and mental standpoints. 

Classes can, by the use of this material in connection with the 
training in manual and domestic arts, be given information in 
a most attractive form about the way in which materials are 
gathered, transported and manufactured into finished goods. 
Through the very vivid stereographs, they will come to have 
a better understanding of the way the world does its work, 
and the applications and requirements of a wide range of activi- 
ties. This cannot but aid them in a choice of a life work. 



33. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN INCLUDING 
ARCHITECTURE 

By RAYMOND P. ENSIGN 

INSTRUCTOR IN DESIGN, SUPERVISOR OF DESIGN CLASSES, PRATT 
INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 

Part I 

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 

With development through the basic relationship to natural physical 
forces, mechanical powers, and mechanism. 

I. ADVANTAGE TAKEN OF NATURAL FORCES 
I. The Force of Cohesion in Natural Products 

(a) Spanning Spaces 
Nature's Work 

3 A demonstration of the cohesive force in the material. 
200 Nature's use of the principle. 
206 A wooden bridge has become a stone one. 

Man's Use of Nature's Provision. 

242 A board bridges the space between the submarines. 

506 Wooden lintels over the wall openings. 

41 Crossbeams supporting a floor above. 

150 The frame of an automobile offers a good example. 

135 Steel girders as used in this and other ways. 

27 Suspension bridge depends on cohesive force in cables. 

99 The " breeches buoy " needs dependable force in rope. 

Man's Improvements on Nature. 

See Arches, Domes, Trusses, and Bridge Design in this chapter. 

(b) Containers 
Cohesive force makes possible all containers. 
285 A primitive form of vessel. 
65 Immense and dependable containers. 
334 Great buckets in a smelter. 

19 All boxes depend upon cohesiveness in the wood. 
295 The ordinary bag sees rough usage. 
311 Heavily laden carts. 

388 



INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 389 

498 Pleasing form of container in the foreground. 
215 Well wrapped " bundles " of logs. 
507 Weird boats standing rough treatment. 

(c) Various Applications 
Wood 

217 Cohesive force in boards, timbers and masts. 

113 Every sort of building dependent upon it. • 

9 A more finished way of building. 

536 A simple piece of furniture depends upon cohesiveness. 

33 This is true of the most beautiful furniture. 

245 A sturdy shovel handle. 

224 Cohesive force in wood gives way before that in steel. 

523 Many forces working here. Compare with 224. 

443 The carver works against this force. 

412 Machines for overcoming the cohesive force in wood. 

20 The final result still dependent upon it. 

Natural Stone 

3 No easy task to work the stone. 
206 A peculiar kind of stone. 
498 Difficult to wear out. 

292 Cohesive force in stone greater than that in corn. 
516 Cohesion in the stone roller plus many coolies makes for co- 
hesiveness in the road bed. 
569 A magnificent example of this and other forces. 
560 Cohesiveness of stone makes possible sculptured decorations. 

Manufactured Stone; Pottery and Tile. 

123 Extensive use of cohesiveness in cement building. 

121 Something of a skyscraper. 

171 Attractive concrete construction. 

170 A great concrete dam. 

252 Concrete even to the lamp-posts. 

161 An example in the tile used for draining. 

487 Cohesiveness makes possible all pottery. 

Metal; Steel, etc. 

66 Shaping a steel ingot. 

67 Overcoming its cohesiveness. 

157 Cohesive force does away with need of containers. 

65 The steel hooks will hold an immense weight. 

75 Many lives depending upon the chain. 

215 The chains make excellent wrappings. 

80 Some other force was greater. 

82 Built to withstand the pressure of steam inside. 

84 Machines for working useful metals. 

224 Cohesive force in steel overcoming that in wood. 

21 This force makes possible beautiful jewelry. 

See Steel Framework Construction, this classification. 



390 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

i 

Other Mineral Products. 
76 Cohesive force in coal. 
512 Finding great cohesiveness in gems. 
135 Working glass into large plate glass windows. 

Leather and Skins. 

285 Cohesive force makes pig-skin good container. 

507 Another use for animal skins. 

See Leather in Products and Industries classification. 

Rubber. 

131 A remarkable substance in crude form. 

132 Peculiar cohesiveness makes for long wearing tires. 

133 And in boots keeps the water from your feet. 

Miscellaneous. 
45 Butter is an everyday example of cohesiveness. 

2. The Force of Gravity 

(a) Unloading 
1 Vast labor done by Nature's force. 

(b) Transferring Commodities from One Container to Another 
156 Hot, molten metal easily poured. 
334 On a large scale. 
35 An easy way of sacking sugar. 
164 Great ships are loaded rapidly. 
128 The bottoms of these cars open to empty the load. 

270 Gravity takes the beets into the conveyors. 

271 Gravity active in this operation. 

64 Pig iron drops from mold directly into car. 

(c) Gravity's Force at Work in Various Ways 

49 Tremendous energy ready for harnessing. 

210 Energy stored in vast amount. 

569 Evidences of great power ready for use. 

516 Heavy roller doing good work on a road. 

108 Elevated tank makes great water pressure. 

22 A delicate use of the force. 

78 Another simple but clever appliance. 

79 An interesting use in the coal breaker. 

(d) Specific Gravity 
The buoyant force of liquids and gases 
169 A board will float on water. So will a -canoe. 
39 Heavily laden boats held up by density of water. 
507 Interesting ferries in use in Asia. 
394 A modern airship riding on the air. 
245 Water separates the gold from the dirt and gravel. 
242 Submarines can submerge or come to surface at will. 



INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 391 

3. Electricity 

170 The source of power. 

171 Inside the power house. 

252 Electric lighting along the Gatun Locks. 

4. Light 

See Lighting Fixtures. 

5. Sound 

446 An unusual form of horn. 
80 Liberty Bell, 71, 241, 484, and other bells. 

6. Evaporation 

42 An interesting view of production of salt. 

310 Drying coffee makes it possible to keep it. 

531 Note the construction of the drying racks. 

244 A primitive method. 

II. MECHANICAL POWERS 

or Simple Machine Principles. 

1. Leverage 

(a) Balance 
Carrying Loads 

437 Small boy, large basket. 

449 Heavy loads can be " packed " if properly balanced 

487 One way of delivering milk. 

378 Not as heavy as it looks. 

524 Carefully loaded pack horses. 

Poised for Easy Movement 
581 A car that can be easily dumped. 
65 A tremendous weight but nicely balanced. 
334 Adapted to pouring easily. 

The Cantilever Bridge 

366 An immense balanced bridge in Scotland. 

470 Also built on the cantilever principle. 

(b) Levers 

418 A homemade affair. 

156 A fine example of a lever. 

134 A heavy load easily handled. 

250 A powerful lever at work. 

163 Another steam shovel doing heavy duty. 

130 Leverage in the handle of the tool. 

147 The pitchfork is a much used lever. 



392 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

(c) Wheel and Axle 
512 An Oriental device employing the principle. 
82 A good example in the drive wheels of locomotives. 

180 Similar examples in automobiles and tractors. 
16 At the extreme right, an example in gearing. 
64 A close view of some gearing. 

540 An interesting operation. 
66 The principle plainly illustrated here. 

(d) Pulleys 
Fixed Pulleys 

69 Simple pulley at the top of the picture. 
161 Pulley used to raise and lower. 
295 Numerous and useful. 
400 Pulleys on sail boats. 

23 Transferring power on a large scale. 

54 Belts running on pulleys. Every roller a pulley. 

Movable Pulleys 

135 Increased power in this arrangement. 

150 Ready for work; in the upper right hand corner. 

334 Tables running on pulleys, carry heavy loads. 

2. Inclined Planes 

(a) Inclined Planes 

181 Hay being loaded in an efficient way. 

216 Logs carried into the sawmill on inclined planes. 
440 A good view of an inclined railway. 
75 A close view. 

(b) Wedges 
242 Prow of submarines adapted to pushing the water aside. 
254 All boats and ships are so shaped. 
215 Raft built in this form to facilitate towing. 
397 Wedge-shaped piers on bridge to divert water and ice. 
470 A great protection to costly bridges. 

(c) Screws 
153 An efficient machine for loosening the salt. 
130 The screw principle on a smaller scale. 
443 Every craftsman has one in his vise. 

III. MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 

i. Simple Tools and Devices 

(a) Primitive 
554 Rude cart and yoke. 

561 A crude implement for tilling the soil. 
549 This looks like an unpleasant job. 

562 Somewhat pretentious but crude. 



INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 393 

550 An interesting set of implements. 
498 A well designed primitive mill. 

(b) Simple, but Efficient and Up-to-date 
143 A curved draw-shave makes rapid work. 
531 Note device for holding the side-rails apart. 

75 The chain hook adjusts itself to the grade. 

78 Exceedingly simple but most efficient. 

2. Mechanism Simple in Principle 
(a) Levers 
156 Mechanical assistance in an unpleasant job. 
134 Permitting free movement in all directions. 
250 A sturdy lever at work. 

(b) Inclined Plane 

181 An efficient way of loading hay. 

(c) Cranes and Derricks 

327 Steam shovel at work on the docks. 

334 Traveling crane in a large smelter. 

65 The bucket carried by a crane. 

82 Used for moving parts of locomotives. 

156 First aid in a hot place. 

150 Thousands in use in automobile factories. 

128 Fascinating type of traveling crane on coal docks. 

295 Type of derrick used in loading ships. 

122 Derricks in the oil fields. 

69 Detail of such a derrick. 

70 An interesting moment. 

(d) Steam Shovels 
163 A steam shovel doing heavy duty. 

250 An excellent view of a shovel at work. 

251 Testimony to efficiency and value of steam shovel. 

(e) Conveyors 
34 An arrangement to save much labor. 

63 Ready to carry pig iron to the cars. 

67 Note rollers on which hot steel beam is carried. 
217 Saving much lifting in handling lumber. 

(f) Various Mechanisms 
334 Carrying and pouring molten metal on a large scale. 
45 An improvement on the kitchen churn. 
540 An efficient and well built reel. 
512 Both hands needed to operate these. 

3. Complex Mechanism 

64 An interesting arrangement of gears. 
16 Faster than block-printing by hand. 



394 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

15 A machine that is almost human. 

150 Some automobiles are simpler but none is simple. 

12 A far cry from the cobbler at his bench. 

161 Note the " caterpillar " wheel arrangement. 

136 This farmer believes in preparedness. 

357 A machine that is now out-of-date. 

233 Harvesting - and threshing on a large farm. 
See Multiple and Special Machinery, following. 

4. Multiple Machinery 

(a) Farming 

178 Three furrows at once. 

179 Double disc and three-section harrow. 

(b) Spinning 

24 Production on a large scale. 

14 A vast room filled with large machines. 

81 As far as the eye can reach. 

(c) Weaving 
55 Turning out many ribbons at once. 

(d) Special 
412 Eight blocks fed at once in each machine. 
46 An efficient machine in a dairy. 

5. Special Machinery 

(a) Various Examples 

125 The cotton gin. 

203 Machine that has made gold mining more profitable. 

272 Scene in a tannery. 

412 One of the steps in making paper. 

153 A useful machine for loosening the salt. 

84 Of interest to all of us. 

40 Much easier and better than by hand. 

46 Rapid and efficient machinery in a dairy. 

45 Making butter in immense quantities. 

132 An interesting and important process. 

313 A modern dredge at work. 

6. Steel Framework Construction 
(a) Uses 
Girders 

135 Close view showing shape of edge. 
65 Girders showing in upper left corner. 
134 Note use in supporting the roof. 

Towers 

327 A tall shaft for an arc light. 

486 For a lamp-post in Russia. 



INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 395 



108 A modern windmill tower. 

120 A wireless station tower. 

421 The Eiffel Tower, nearly 1000 feet high. 

254 Basket mast on a modern battleship. 

Arches 

174 An immense arch over the Mississippi. 

Truss 

330 Steel truss carrying a railway track. 

Cantilevers 

366 An immense cantilever bridge in Scotland. 

(b) Details of Construction 

65 Reinforcement. 

129 Reinforced corners. 

135 Shaped like letter I or L, to give stiffness. 

128 Edges of cars strengthened by the L shape. 

581 Edges reinforced by rolling them over a rod. 

155 In need of reinforcement. 



IV. CONTRAST OF PRIMITIVE AND MODERN DESIGN AND 
CONSTRUCTION IN INDUSTRY 

Agricultural Implements 

(a) Reclaiming the Soil 

161 Caterpillar tractor wheels lay their own track on hard or soft 
ground. 

(b) Preparing the Soil 
561 Primitive plow does little more than stir soil. 
488 A crude form of plow and a slow process. 

178 A modern tractor gang plow. 

180,207 Efficiency. Rapid work with up-to-date implements. 
549 American farmer would dislike the implement and job. 
522 Five patient workers. 

179 Two operations on a wide area. 
332 Modern machinery in South America. 

(c) Harvesting the Crops 

529 Primitive method of harvesting grain. 

357 A reaper of twenty-five years ago. 

218 Twenty horse power but doing great deal of work. 

233 Steam power combining three operations. 

136 An interesting type of corn harvester. 

160 Another modern labor-saving device. 

181 A rapid way of gathering and loading hay. 

147 The hay used to be loaded as these oats. 



396 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

(d) Threshing the Grain 

497 Rather a lack of implements. 

479 Footpower threshing floor. Note homemade pitchfork. 

527 Another threshing floor. 

218 A modern way of threshing. 

233 No time is lost in getting the grain into sacks. 

562 A cumbersome implement but doubtless effective. 

(e) Preparing the Grain for Use 
550 These tools have pleasing designs but are not time savers. 

498 Primitive form of mill, but interesting in design. 
292 Grinding corn. Well shaped tools. 

V. DESIGN IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS 

i. Spacing — Arrangement — Proportion 

See Spacing under Architectural Design 

2. Objects Whose Form is Specially Adapted to, and Expressive 

of, Their Purpose 

(a) Pouring 
334 Excellent examples of the principle. 
156 Neat and effective. 

(b) Grinding 

292 Very simple but pleasing for that. 
498 An example well worth study. 

(c) Various Purposes 

80 A hinge design which is nicely adapted to its purpose. 

42 An implement for scraping and pushing. 

516 Better than ordinary for the purpose. 

210 Arch principle involved in holding the water back. 

154 A similar example at the right. 

143 Curved drawshave for trimming hams. 

543 Racks which allow the carrier to rest occasionally. 

487 Milk jars that can be easily cleaned. 

446 A unique and effective horn. 

80 Bells furnish interesting examples. 

3. Objects Whose Form is Especially Adapted to, and Expressive 

of, the Material and Process of Manufacture 

(a) Stone 
292 There is no mistaking the idea here. 
498 Primitive but pleasing stone mill. 
516 Surely convincing of its heavy, stony nature. 

(b) Pottery 
542 Evidently of a material once plastic. 
487 Note general form and handles of the milk jars. 



INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 397 

58 Soft lines suggesting that the material was workable. 

59 At a later stage. 

385 Dishes of every kind. Many of them are of excellent shape. 
519 Common Chinese dishes. 

(c) Metal 
336 The simple scrolls tell of* wrought iron. 

33 The coffeepot is a fine example. 
396 Cans in the cart are expressive of thin metal. 

80 Form and ornament well worth study. 

(d) Wood 
536 Proportion and style suggestive of wood. 
33 Wood adaptable in developing designs of chairs. 
409 Expressive of the turning-lathe. 
506 Note turning and carving on the spinning wheel. 

VI. PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE 
See classification Products and Industries. 

i. Ornament Adapted to Structure and Structural Lines 

See Industrial Products below, and Structural Lines under Archi- 
tectural Design. 

2. Ornament in Industrial Products 

(a) Stone 

498 The stone sufficiently ornamental. 

5 Developing the design in the stone. 

92 Simply structural decoration on the marble mantel. 

288 Beautiful enrichment of the surface. 

560 The silent sentinel. 

252 Well designed lamp-posts of manufactured stone. 

(b) Pottery 

59 Decorating porcelain in quantities. 

33 Quaintly designed china adds to table effect. 
487 Simple pottery, but expressive. 
542 Sturdy pieces of considerable capacity. 
517 Interesting pattern in roof tiles. 

(c) Metal 

80 Beautiful adaptation of ornament to structure. 

336 The wrought iron railing is fine in line. 

534 A pleasing railing design from the Orient. 

92 Well designed lighting fixtures. 

351 Unusual refinement in the design of the street lamp. 

33 Beautiful play of line on the coffeepot. 



398 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

(d) Textiles 
Woven 
263 Developing the designs in the baskets. 

See Baskets under Designs in the Arts Allied to Architecture, this 
classification. 

55 Producing ornament by wholesale. 
158 Interesting examples of woven designs. 
343 A variety from the far north. 

Printed 

15 Making ready for the manufacturing process. 

16 Applying the design in a thoroughly modern way. 

Embroidered 

487 Beautiful patterns of an Eastern character. 

(e) Wood 

536 An emphasis of construction the only ornament. 

113 The corner construction produces interesting ornament. 

409 A good example produced by " turning " in a lathe. 

33 "Turning" and hand carving in the furniture. 

92 Well shaped chairs. Mahogany clock on the mantel. 

80 Refined and dignified ornament on standard. 

506 Quaint " turning " and carving on spinning wheel. 

417 Ornate carving on furniture and ceiling. 

352 Beautiful enrichment of interior woodwork. 

443 Doubtful ornament. 

(f) Printed Ornament 

15 An interesting commercial development. 

16 Ornament repeated endlessly. 

94 The kind of ornament with a universal appeal. 
See Design in the Arts Allied to Architecture in this chapter. 

Part II 
ARCHITECTURE 

T. ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 
i. Primitive Styles of Building 

205 Early North American village; 265 Indian tepee; 113 Pioneer 
log cabin ; 331 Incan palace wall : 281 Home of mud bricks ; 
550 Splint wall and thatched roof; 549 Thatched roof houses 
on stilts; 298 Thatched roof hut; 409 Timbered cabin; 592 
Houses, New Guinea; 211 Pueblo of Indians in Southwest. 



ARCHITECTURE 399 

2. Historic Styles of Architecture 

(a) Egyptian 

561,564 Great Pyramid of Khufu; 565 Sphinx; 566 Step Pyramid; 
568 Ruins of Egyptian Temple. 

(b) Grecian 

475 Ruins of Jhe Parthenon on the Acropolis, Athens. 

478 Ruins of an important Greek temple. 

477 Searching for architectural fragments. 

92 Mantel shows modern use of Greek Doric style. 

91 Columns, entablature, pediment, etc., Greek Ionic. 

90 Architectural details adopted from the Greek Ionic. 

89 A modern use of the Ionic capital. 

351 Modern uses of the Greek Corinthian styles. 
87 Following the Corinthian style in details. 

(c) Roman 

452 Notable development of arch principle in building. 

453 Ruins of Pompeii. 

451 Hadrian's Tomb; note use of arches in bridge. 
391 Bridge built on old Roman foundations. 

(d) Byzantine 
473,495 Byzantine churches, showing later influence of Mohammedan 

art in spires and domes. 
483 The cathedral essentially Byzantine, but betraying Mohammedan 

influence in spires and domes. 

(e) Mohammedan (Saracenic) 

466 Mohammedan mosque, showing the Byzantine influence. 

493 Mohammedan minarets in evidence. 

558 Typical Mohammedan architecture in the foreground. 

502 A beautiful example of Mohammedan art in India. 

503 Note the splendid spacing of wall surfaces. 
557 An example of fine architecture in Africa. 

436 Interior of Alhambra richly decorated in this style. 

(f) Romanesque 
406 A round tower in the spirit of the Romanesque. 

349 A building of great historical interest. 

429 Modern structure in Romanesque style influenced by Saracenic 
art. 

(g) Gothic 

360 The cathedral at York is English Gothic. 

350 Glimpse showing numerous features of Gothic. 

352 An interior in the late Gothic style. 

425 A wonderful example of Gothic architecture. 

387 Both cathedral and fountain are in this style. 

389 The spire of Strassburg cathedral towers at the right. 

458 An Italian interpretation of the Gothic style. 



400 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

457 The palaces at the turn of the canal are Italian Gothic. 
434 The Gothic cathedral in Burgos, Spain. 
29 Trinity church, at head of Wall Street, in Gothic style. 

(h) Renaissance 

451 In the distance, the dome of St. Peter's. 

450 The Piazza and colonnades before St. Peter's. 

28 Old City Hall, fine interpretation of Italian Renaissance. 

95 A more elaborate treatment of the Renaissance style. 
384 A conservative rendering of this style in Germany. 
383 More modern and more ornate. 

329 Spanish use of the Renaissance in America. 

335 An interesting Spanish version, in America. 

241 Another legacy from the Spaniards. 

277 Somewhat suggestive of the early French chateau version. 

351 Left and right show more classic French version. 

90 Dignified American use of the Renaissance, following classic 

French version. 
87 Suggestive of French Renaissance study of the classic. 

91 A simpler use of the same style. 

482 Russian building influenced by French architecture of this period. 

424 Modern French Renaissance. 

417 Following the elaborate French Renaissance styles of Louis XIV 

and Louis XV. 

587 Modern form of French Renaissance. 

590 Renaissance architectural details. 

354 Domestic architecture of the English Renaissance. 

(i) Classic Renaissance Architecture in the United States 
(Colonial) 

7 Both buildings follow this style. 

8 Another Colonial example. Note the fine doorways. 
28 Old City Hall, one of our finest pieces of architecture. 

90 Several buildings in this style. 
87 One of our imposing buildings. 

89 Classic architectural arrangement in an interior. 

92 The mantel shows pure classic detail. 

91 Good example of Renaissance treatment of the classic. 

96 The use of the style in a domestic building. 

9 Typical example of our Colonial style in a residence. 
10 A simplified form. 

33 Architectural woodwork and furniture in Colonial style. 

(j) East Indian 
501 Showing elaborate detail of style. 
499 In the middle distance an example of the native style. 

(k) Chinese 
521 Oriental love of intricate detail shows in this picture. 
520 A closer view of the ornament. 



ARCHITECTURE 401 

(l) Japanese 
526 Showing the rather modest Japanese type. 

(m) Skyscrapers 
Store and Office Buildings of Steel and Concrete Construction. 
26 These buildings house a tremendous office population. 
25 Looking down into the mass. 
30 A good view of the canyon-like streets. 
28 Fine architectural design in a skyscraper. 
139 Immense buildings but not so high as those in New York. 
121 A simple design in a high building. 

(n) Modern Factory Buildings 
123 An expressive use of concrete. 
152 Fine type of building for the purpose. 
See Factory Interiors, this classification. 

II. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
i. Architectural Composition 

Spacing — Arrangement — Proportion. 

96 Fine adjustment of spacing between posts. 

499 In the foreground, a nicely spaced wall. 

521 Well spaced ; ornament subordinated to spaces and masses. 

354 A most interesting study in spacing. 

123 A careful study in modern factory design. 

457 Beautiful arrangement in fagade of palace in distance. 

9 Well proportioned doorway. 

80 An excellent example of Colonial panelling. 

260 Side windows subordinated to the central one. 

28 Fine examples in both the old and new city halls. 

90 An arrangement following the Classic. 

152 Well balanced spaces in a factory wall. 

89 An interior after classic lines. 

88 A long wall well broken up. 

424 Intricate but well massed. 

95 An example of which we may be proud. 

425 Splendid adjustment of spaces and masses in this Gothic fagade. 
352 Beautifully spaced. Richly carved. 

503 A superb study in proportion. 

502 A lovely work of art. 

533 Restrained, dignified and restful. 

557 Original and effective treatment of an arch. 

241 A subtle variation in sizes, proportions and placing. 

2. Structural Lines 

The emphasis of structure lines and the subordination of ornament to 
structural lines and masses. 



402 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

123 Pleasing effects by emphasis of structural lines and good spacing. 

152 A more elaborate structure but with structural lines dominant. 

354 The enriched effect made by the structural lines. 

96 Enrichment of posts emphasizing the vertical. 

339 Pleasing effect obtained holding strictly to lines repeating the 

main lines of the building. 

533 Nothing to distract from the structural. 

536 Projecting constructive elements at corners make sufficient dec- 
oration. 

80 Enrichment following structural lines in bell and standard. 

384 Note lines on the dome and its base. 

87 A dome which we all know. 

95 A modern treatment of a dome. Same principle followed in dome 

and fagade. 

28 Rich in examples of this principle. 

499 Pilasters used effectively (in the foreground). 

89 Structural lines dominant in this interior. 

33 Rosettes enriching the doorway yield to the important lines. 

425 The Gothic style gives us superb examples. 

350 Somewhat hidden by the foliage but still evident. 

458 Much ornament but all subordinated to structural lines. 

434 A most pleasant arrangement. 

352 The Perpendicular Gothic particularly rich in examples. 

503 Plenty of enrichment but it is not obtrusive. 

502 An architectural wonder. 

558 Observe handling of lovely ornament on dome (left). 

521 " We may decorate construction, but must not construct decora- 
tion." 

3. Architectural " Orders " 

The classic styles, as shown in columns, and developments from the 
classic. 

(a) Doric 

380 Modern use of pure Greek Doric column in the background. 
92. The mantel shows use of Greek Doric; column and entablature. 
340 Modern use of Doric columns at the left. 

8 Colonial adoption of the Doric. 

(b) Ionic 

91 The Ionic order in the portico; column, entablature and pedi- 
ment. 
90 The Ionic used in two buildings. 
89 " Volute " capital closely following the Ionic. 

9 A development from the Ionic capital used on pilasters. 
384 Renaissance use of the Ionic in the foreground. 

(c) Corinthian 
351 At the right, classic Corinthian followed closely. 
87 The Corinthian order used extensively. 



ARCHITECTURE 403 

482 Renaissance use of the Corinthian. 

460 Typical Corinthian column used for a monument. 

(d) Special 
478 Ruins of ancient Grecian temple showing fragments of fluted 

columns. 
450 Classic columns used in colonnades. 
95 Modern use of classic columns in a composition. 
5 Carving architectural capitals. 

4. Architectural Design in Openings 

(a) Doorways and Entrances 

8 A beautiful Colonial doorway. 

9 Another Colonial example. 

260 Well designed entrance to a public school. 

329 A good example of the Renaissance style. 

337 Simple dignified treatment of a doorway. 

425 A splendid example of the Gothic. 

502 Perfect beauty in the Saracenic taste. 

503 A fine arrangement of masses. 

520 An example of the Oriental ornamentation. 

521 Showing the Chinese arrangement and decoration. 
557 A well designed gateway. 

(b) Windows 

37 Small paned window of the Colonial style. 

339 An interesting example from South America. 

152 Good architectural design in window arrangement of factory. 

260 Well spaced group of windows. 

362 An interesting treatment in the English style. 

354 The English projecting "oriel" window. 

387 Early Gothic "lancet" window. 

434 Delicate tracery of the later Gothic. 

352 Beautiful stained glass windows in the Gothic style. 

425 Splendid Gothic examples. 

(c) In the Gothic Style 
387 Early Gothic ; narrow " lancet " windows. 
434 Later " geometric " Gothic with its tracery. 
352 The interior effect. 

425 Splendid examples of the style. 

(d) The Oriental Style 
557 Saracenic architectural features. 

502 One of the most beautiful designs in the world. 

503 A beautiful arrangement of spaces and masses. 

520 Characteristic Chinese treatment. 

521 Subordination of ornament to architectural spaces and masses. 



404 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

5. Roofs 

For examples of Roofs see Architectural Types (a) and (b) in this 
classification. 

6. Architectural Ornament 

(a) Egyptian 
568 Low relief carving on flat surfaces. 

(b) Classic 

The examples are Renaissance structures in the Classic style. 
92 Triglyphs and metopes on frieze of Doric order (mantel). 

351 Enrichment of capital and pediment of Corinthian order (at the 

right). 

(c) Gotliic 

425 Decoration subordinated to structural lines. 

350 Decoration rich but well placed. 

434 A beautiful composition. 

387 Cathedral and fountain in the Gothic style. 

458 A beautifully enriched structure. 

352 Fine example of Gothic carved decoration. 

(d) Renaissance 

384 Characteristic of the period. 

87 Decoration subordinated. 

417 Rich ceiling and carved furniture. 

424 An elaborately ornamented modern Renaissance structure. 

383 A pretentious design in the style. 

590 Late Renaissance details; ornate but not necessarily beautiful. 

(e) Saracenic 

557 A striking manner of ornamentation. 

558 Beautiful treatment of a dome (left). 
503 Rather simple but effective decoration. 
502 Surfaces inlaid and carved. 

(f) East Indian 
501 In the fascinating native style. 

(i) Chinese 

520 Characteristic style of decoration. 

521 Rich ornament subordinated to structural lines and masses. 

(h) Japanese 
536 Exceedingly simple but the projecting corners are effective with 
the fine spacing. 

(i) Details 
89 The Ionic capital with its volutes. 
5 Carving the volute on a capital. 
460 Richly carved Corinthian capital. 



ARCHITECTURE 405 

33 Rosettes on the doorway casing. 

92 Metopes and triglyphs on frieze of mantel. 

241 Mouldings well placed. 

8 Cartouche in gable. 

384 Cartouche over entrance. 

282 Urn-shaped finials. Balustrade. 
96 Ornamental railing. 

283 Ornamental posts and railing. 
336 Balcony railing. 

425 Pose window; gargoyles; mouldings and bands. 

434 Crockets on spires. 

352 Richly carved canopy. 

502 Inlaid pavement. 

560 Architectural sculpture. 

III. ARCHITECTURAL CONSTRUCTION 

i. Spanning Spaces 

Examples of important constructive principles in the methods Oi 
spanning spaces, which methods have affected all Architecture. 

(a) The Lintel 

506 A primitive example ; beam spanning window and door openings 

and carrying the weight above. 
568 The massive lintel construction gave to Egyptian architecture its 
chief characteristics. 
92 The member resting on top of the columns in the mantel is a de- 
velopment of the lintel. 
91 The lintel carried over four columns. 
351 Several examples here, that at the right closely following the 

ancient Greek style. 
89 An example of a lintel in interior use. 

(b) The Arch 

200 A natural arch but not constructed according to the true arch 
principle. 

384 A good example of a true arch over the waterway. Note ar- 
rangement of stones with " Keystone " in the center. 

524 A beautiful arch of olden times. 

557 This gateway shows a fine arch. 

427 A single arch over a river. Note arrangement of stones. 

451 A series of arches in the nearer bridge. 
391,397 A sturdy bridge of many arches. 

456 Note beautiful group in center of first bridge. 

348 A near view of a series of great arches. 

241 Beautiful arrangement of several arches. 

452 One of the earliest and most famous examples of arch construc- 

tion. 
260 A modern use of arches. Note keystone and other stones in the 
second story arches. 



406 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

89 An interior view showing an arched opening. 

174 A magnificent arch of steel construction. 

392 A fine example of the use of arches. 

210 The arch principle employed in an immense dam. 

154 An important use in the construction of canal locks. 

(c) The Dome (A development of the arch principle) 

451 The splendid dome of St. Peter's in the distance. 

384 A massive dome. Note the emphasis of structural lines. 

87 Our best known dome. 

7 A flatter form of dome. 

28 Dome on the World Building at the right. 

558 An interesting group of domes in the foreground. 

483 Graceful clusters of domes in the Oriental style. 

502 Splendid example of Saracenic architecture. 

95 A modern form of the dome. 

(d) The Truss 
202 The truss ; a built-up structure to span a space 
330 A large inverted steel truss. 

270 Countless wooden trusses carrying the roof. 

271 Steel truss used to strengthen a floor. 
150 Spanning an immense space. 

2. Architectural Supports 

(a) Columns 

92 Doric columns in a mantel design. 

8 Doric columns in a doorway design. 

380 Doric column as a monument shaft (distance). 

89 Ionic columns in an interior scheme. 

460 Corinthian column as a monument shaft. 
478 Fragments of ancient Grecian columns. 
18 Iron columns in a factory. 

(b) Columns in Porticos (Intercolumniation) 
340 Doric columns at the left. 
91 Ionic columns on the White House. 
351 Columns in the Corinthian portico at the right. 
587 Columns used in various ways. 
384 Columns in pairs. 

(c) Columns in Rows (Intercolumniation) 
450 Doric columns in a colonnade. 

90 Ionic columns used in two ways. 
87 Stately Corinthian columns. 

482 Columns in groups and rows. 
424 Grouped arrangement of columns. 
95 A modern architectural arrangement. 



ARCHITECTURE 407 

(d) Piers and Posts 



Exterior 

568 Study Egyptian piers. 
96 Delicate Colonial posts. 
109 Heavier stone posts. 
152 Piers as a development of the wall. 

Interior 

272 Simple posts; no pretense to architectural design. 

94 Brick posts or piers. 

41 Square piers ; rounded corners. 

171 Stately rows of piers. 



I* 

470 Substantial yet graceful structures of stone. 
27 Imposing piers of stone. 
See other bridge piers under Bridge Design. 

(e) Pilasters 

9 Tall pilasters flanking an entrance. 

33 Pilasters in a Colonial doorway. 

89 Pilasters combined with columns. 

29 Superimposed in a fagade. 

587 Clustered at corners. 

384 At corners in the foreground ; also used in the dome. 

499 In the foreground, dividing wall «paces. 

590 Ornate treatment of pilasters. 

521 Appearing in a Chinese fagade. 

(f) Buttresses 
Gothic 

387 Barely discernible; built up along the side of the cathedral. 
425 The design employs the buttresses advantageously. 
458 Richly decorated. 

350 Flying buttresses in the second story. 
434 Flying buttresses clearly shown along the side and at the rear 

end of the cathedral. 
29 On old Trinity in New York. 
340 An example at the right. 

Other forms 

586 Great trees have natural buttresses. 

282 Stone buttresses in the foreground. 

241 A massive form, at the right. 

152 As used in modern factory design. 

123 As expressed in concrete construction. 

(g) Brackets or Corbels 
376 Supporting the parapet. 
260 Supporting a balcony. 



408 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

3. Roofs 

For examples of roofs see Architectural Types (a) and (b) in this 
classification. 

4. Materials 

For building materials such as lumber, stone, iron, steel, etc., see 
classification, Products and Manufacturing. 

IV. ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES 

1. Architectural Types 

Examples of comparatively modern architectural design from various 
countries. 

(a) Public Buildings 
North America. 

87 An imposing use of dome and colonnades. 

91 Expressive of dignity and democratic simplicity. 

95 A building of pleasing proportions. 

90 A group of our government buildings. 

26 The city " skyscrapers." 

25 A nearer view of these office buildings. 

30 One of the canyon-like streets. 

28 A contrast in proportion, both fine. 

139 Typical modern store and office buildings. 

152 Typical factory building of today. 

282 General view of buildings in modern Mexico City. 

South America. 

315 A mixture of styles. 

340 Classic influence on the left ; Gothic on the right. 

Europe. 

351 A conservative style of architecture, befitting its purpose. 

424 More elaborate, in character with its use. 

436 General view in Spain. 

457 General view in Venice. 

383 An ornate structure. 

384 Rugged exterior, elaborate furnishings within. 
399 Good examples of Dutch architecture. 

462 Distant view of buildings in Vienna. 

482 Many columns used in this design. 

468 Modern looking buildings in Bulgaria. 

466 Oriental influence evident. 

476 Modern buildings with details influenced by the ancient. 

Africa. 

582 This is surely not " darkest Africa." 

558 The Oriental and the European in Egypt. 



ARCHITECTURE 409 

Asia. 

499 European styles in foreground ; native influence in background. 

521 Elaborate bit of architectural design in Chinese style. 

513 The European influence in China. 

526 Native architectural treatment dominant. 

A ustralia. 

587 An imposing edifice in Melbourne. 

Hawaii. 

260 Good architectural design and flag look well together. 

(b) Domestic Architecture 
United States. 
9 A good Colonial type. 
10 Beautiful setting for a home. 
91 A dignified residence of national importance. 

West Indies, Mexico, Central and South America. 

282 City buildings in Mexico. 

299 Modest residences in Cuba. 

249 An attractive street in Panama. 

304 Interesting treatment on a hillside. 

336 A trim and tidy city street. 

337 Pleasing design in the houses here. 

339 Narrow street but effective unity of architectural treatment. 

British Isles. 

354 An example of fine village architecture. 

355 A famous thatch-roofed cottage. 

362 Charming setting for a country home. 
368 Interesting domestic architecture. 
379 A cottage and a country home. 

Holland. 

402 Effective unity of treatment. 

Germany. 

389 Residences in a German city. 

Austria. 

461 Interesting house designs and background. 

Switzerland. 

447 Typical Swiss architecture. 
445 Swiss chalet with wide eaves. 

Bohemia. 

463 Historic castle and village houses. 



410 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

Spain. 

434 Rugged character of design in houses. 

Italy. 

457 Along a Venetian " street." 

454 Typical city houses in Naples. 

455 One way of decorating architecture. 

Syria. 

492 Densely populated Beyrout. 

493 An interesting arrangement of roof shapes. 

Egypt. 

558 A mixture of Oriental and European. 

India. 

499 Another mixture of native and European. 

China. 

517 Quaint native houses. 

514 A tenement district unlike ours. 

Japan and Chosen. 

526 Native architectural style dominant. 

535 Charming house and its garden setting. 

534 An intimate view of a Japanese building. 

533 Simplicity and refinement in building and furnishing. 

543 Peculiar native architecture well shown. 

Philippine Islands. 
546 Quaint houseboats in Manila. 
550 Splint walls and thatched roof. 
549 A village on stilts. 

2. City Views and Street Scenes 
See classification Cities and City Life. 

3. Religious Buildings 

(a) Temples 

568 Egyptian ruins; 475 Athena; 478 Greek ruins; 501 East Indian; 
212 Mormon. 

(b) Mosques 

495,558 Mohammedan in distance; 503 Indian; 483 Russian; 473 St. 
Sophia. 

(c) Russian Churches 
483 Note similarity in design to the Mohammedan mosques. 
495 Russian church in the foreground. 

(d) Cathedrals 
350,360 English Gothic; 425 French; 387 Nuremburg; 389 Strass- 
burg; 458 Italian; 434 Gothic; 429 Romanesque, Saracenic; 324 
Comparatively modern edifice. 



ARCHITECTURE 411 

(e) Churches (Catholic Cathedrals) 
451,450 St. Peter's; 329, 335 Spanish Renaissance. 

(f) Churches (Protestant) 
406 Trinity, Copenhagen ; 6 Old North Church ; 29 Trinity, N. Y. 

(g) Mission 
241 One of the Spanish missions of California. 

(h) Tabernacle 
212 Mormon tabernacle in the distance. 

4. Homes 

(a) See Primitive Styles of Building, this classification 

(b) Cottages 

411 Little more than shelter. 

373 Quaint homes in the Highlands. 

355 Tliatched roof witli interesting lines. 

372 Cottage interior with modern radiator out of place. 

409 Timbered cabin in the background. 

445 One of the attractive Swiss chalets. 

(c) Village Homes 

401 Unity in village architecture. 

402 Another instructive example of unity. 
463 Beautiful village near Prague, Bohemia. 
368 A Scottish type. 

447 Swiss residences. 

354 Fine example of English village architecture. 

362 Surroundings should be considered with building. 

535 The Japanese make beauty spots of their gardens. 

517 Typical Chinese village. 

37 A cottage in our own country. 

96 Fine example of Southern Colonial. 

10 Attractive setting for a village house. 

9 Effective design for house in Colonial style. 

33 An excellent example of a home interior. 

(d) Some City Homes 

91 Suggestive for city or country. 

6 City tenements on the right. 

264 In the quaint city of Quebec. 

339 Attractive designs in modest homes. 

337 Restful and dignified in design. 

389 Larger city houses. 

457 City houses with no front yards. 

455 Apparently not enough room inside. 

434 Modest but simple and pleasing in style. 



412 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

526 A crowded city but interesting architecture. 

492 Crowded conditions in the Near-East. 

5. Historic Homes 

91 The home, for a time, of many of our great men. 

37 An attractive country house. 

96 One of the best known homes in our country. 

113 Surely not elaborate architecturally. 

9 A house with much historical association. 

354 Birthplace of one of England's most famous men. 

355 Concerned in Shakespeare history. 

372 There was no steam heat when Burns lived here. 

362 Beautiful home of one of the great English poets. 

6. Historic and Famous Public Buildings 

(a) Examples 

7 Busy scene near one of Boston's historic buildings. 

8 Old State House hemmed in by modern high buildings. 
6 Old North Church now surrounded by tenements. 

29 Trinity Church at the head of Wall Street. 

28 New York's old City Hall, fine example Colonial architecture. 

87 Where our laws are made. 

89 An imposing architectural setting. 

90 A group of buildings in our National capital. 
93 The surroundings of our government buildings. 

95 Congressional Library, one of our most beautiful buildings. 

88 An interior view in the Capitol. 

91 The residence of our Presidents. 

92 One of the rooms in the White House. 
349 One of England's famous buildings. 
351 An important building in London. 

353 Of importance to all of us. 

425 One of the noted buildings in Paris. 

473 The most noted building in Constantinople. 

For further examples see Religious Buildings, Castles and Palaces 

and Historic Styles of Architecture, in this classification. 

7. Castles and Palaces 

367 Tales of Robert Bruce and others center about this old castle. 

349 A forbidding looking group of buildings. 

376 More formidable once than now. 

417 A richly decorated apartment. 

461 Commanding position for a castle. 

384 A palace which was once a castle. 

483 Fortress, palace and cathedral. 

451 A castle with unique history. 

457 Palace plainly seen at the end of the " street." 

436 The palace of the Moorish Kings. 

432 An ideal castle situation. 



ARCHITECTURE 413 

463 Castle on a hill top, easily defended. 

476 Modern palace with architectural detail suggestive of old Gre- 
cian influence. 

283 A castle nearer home. 

331 Arrangement of building stones in early South American palace. 

277 Railway station with architecture based on the style of old French 
castles. 

8. Special kinds of Buildings 

(a) Concrete Building Construction 

123 A simple but effective design. 

121 A twelve story building in the southwest. 
152 A combination of brick and concrete. 

(b) Farm Buildings 
159 Many barns on a large farm. 
165 Immense barns and two silos. 
138 Attractive buildings on a large stock farm. 

57 Interior of a modern dairy barn. 
185 Open hay barn. 

56 Laying house, on large egg farm. 

(c) Houseboats 
546 Evidently a popular style. 

399 Houseboats are common on Dutch canals. 

(d) Windmills 

400 Typical Dutch windmill. 

108 Modern windmill on steel tower. 

(e) Towers 

349 Tower of London contains many towers. 

376 A typical castle tower. 

442 Quaint water tower or light house. 

406 Historic " Round Tower " in Copenhagen. 

425 Typical cathedral towers ; Gothic style. 

434 A series of Gothic towers. 

27 Well-known bridge towers. 

421 The Eiffel Tower, almost 1,000 feet high. 

108 Windmill tower and water tank tower. 

122 Countless towers in an oil field. 

(f) Miscellaneous 

565 An Egyptian pyramid and the Sphinx. 

452 An ancient theater, the Colosseum. 

424 The Grand Opera, Paris. 

260 Modern public school building. 

272 Interior of a tannery. 

227 Interior of a cannery. 

58 Pottery kilns, Trenton, N. J. 

56 Laying house, on large egg farm. 



414 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

176 Shaft house and smelter, zinc and lead mines. 

187 Copper smelters in Montana. 

62 Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 

116 Blast furnace, Birmingham, Ala. 

79 Coal breaker, Pennsylvania coal regions. 

216 Saw mill, near Seattle. 

48 Grain elevator, Buffalo. 

9. Monuments and Memorials 

561 The Great Pyramid of Gizeh. 

564 Another view of the Great Pyramid. 

565 The Sphinx and the Second Pyramid. 

566 The Step Pyramid in the distance. 

568 Egyptian obelisks in their original positions. 

451 Hadrian's tomb at the right. 

558 A beautful mausoleum at the left. 

502 One of the world's most beautiful structures. 

368 An imposing situation for such a monument. 

356 A memorial to England's greatest poet. 

387 A beautiful fountain in the Gothic style. 

365 Scott Memorial in Edinburgh. 

146 Lincoln's tomb — Marshall Joffre at entrance. 

380 The Nelson monument in the distance. 

416 Statue of one of Sweden's heroes. 
460 A memorial column in the Alps. 

283 A soldier's monument attractively situated. 

10. Interiors 
(a) Home Interiors 

33 An interior architecturally dignified and refined. 

372 A cottage interior wholly charming except for the modern steam 

radiator. 

533 Fine combination of architectural lines and simple furnishings. 

89 An effective design in a public room. 

92 A room in which we are all interested. 

88 Note the architectural spacing of the walls. 

352 A richly treated English Gothic interior. 

417 The rich decoration of a foreign council room. 

(b) Interiors of Public Buildings 

88 Congressional Chamber, Washington, D. C. 

89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. 

92 Cabinet Room, White House, Washington, D. C. 

80 Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 

352 House of Lords, London. 

♦17 Council Room, Royal Palace, Stockholm. 



ARCHITECTURE 415 

(c) Factory Interiors 
132, 150, 151 Automobiles; 227 Canning salmon; 40 Collar; 156 Cop- 
per; 125, 286, 14, 15, 16 Cotton; 134, 135 Glass; 21 Jewelry; 268, 
269 Linen; 82 Locomotive works; 94 Making paper money; 141 
to 144 Meat packing; 45, 46 Milk and butter; 84 Mint; 57 Mod- 
ern dairy; 19, 20, 412 Paper; 58, 59 Pottery works; 171 Power 
house; 334 Refining silver; 553 Rope factory; 133 Rubber boot; 
153 Salt warehouse; 11, 12 Shoe factory; 86 Shucking oysters; 
541, 53 to 55, 22 to 24 Silk; 65 to 67 Steel mills; 203 Stamp 
mill; 270, 271 Sugar beet; 34, 35 Sugar refinery; 272 Tannery; 
145, 17, 18, 81 Wool. 

ii. Bridge Design 

Look up the principles involved in the construction of an arch, a 
truss, a cantilever, and a suspension bridge. See Steel Framework 
Construction, this classification. 

(a) Natural and Primitive Bridges 
200 Looking under one of nature's bridges. 
206 Another work of nature. 
507 One kind of substitute for bridges. 
408 A small bridge in the country. 

(b) Stone Arch Bridges 
427 A single arch. 
391,451 A series of arches. 
397 A substantial stone arch bridge. 
348 An arch bridge of which you have often heard. 

(c) Steel Arch Bridges 
174 One of the most famous bridges in our country. 
50 A delicate looking structure from a distance. 
575 A modern bridge in the heart of Africa. 
500 The arch above ; the roadway suspended. 
392 An unusual and effective design. 

(d) The Truss Used in Bridge Design 
202 A wooden truss. 
330 The truss below the roadway. 

(e) Suspension Bridges 

27 A famous bridge in our Metropolis. 
379 A smaller suspension bridge in the country. 

(f) Cantilever Bridges 

366 An immense and peculiar looking structure. 
470 A unique and pleasing design. 



416 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

(g) Bridges of Special Interest 
442 One of the unique bridges of the world. 
456 A bridge of much historical interest. 
472 A bridge connecting two continents. 

(h) Miscellaneous 
61 Bridges close together but crossing different rivers. 
560 A modern bridge in an ancient country. 
391 A beautiful stone arch bridge. 
404 A wide bridge in Denmark. 

12. Dams and Locks 

(a) Dams 

196 Dam made by beavers. 

170 Great power dam in the Mississippi. 

210 Thoroughly modern dam for purposes of irrigation. 

569 A modern achievement in Old Egypt. 

253 Emergency dam, Panama Canal. 

(b) Locks 

252 Comprehensive view of the Gatun Locks. 

253 Large freighter in the locks. Emergency dam in position. 
154 Ship Canal Locks, Sault Ste. Marie. 

13. Landscape Architecture — (See Civic Beauty below, also un- 
der classification Orchard, Garden and Wood Lot) 

14. Civic Beauty 

(a) Streets 
380 Wide streets make for city beauty. 
504 Wide street and wide sidewalk. 
422 Wide streets and sidewalks and trees. 
421 A shady street in Paris. 

(b) Buildings 
87 Government building; 260 School; 425 Church; 424 Opera house 
152 Factory; 354 Unity of architectural style in residences. 

(c) Grounds about Buildings 

28 The City Hall in New York has little enough space about it. 

95 Beautiful grounds and approach to a public building. 

90 An abundance of green grass and trees. 
93 A well planned scheme. 

91 Fine setting for a building. 
309 Well kept grounds. 

502 An impressive approach. 
9 Spacious grounds in front of a residence. 



ARCHITECTURE 417 

37 Neat and carefully kept. 
362 Nature's lavish hand. 

(d) Parks 

312 A bit of green in the city. 

329 Too much concrete; not enough grass. 

389 An inviting park in the center of a city. 

350 A refreshing view. 

126 A small but beautiful spot. 

10 The New England " common." 

535 The Japanese love to work with Nature. 

(e) Bridges 
See Bridge Design, this classification. 

15. Naval Architecture (Boats) 

169 Indian birch-bark canoe. 

430 A varied assortment. 

97 Detail of a sailing vessel. 

119 River boats at New Orleans. 

52 Ocean liners at their piers. 

154 Lake boats in a great ship canal. 

253 Large boat in locks, Panama Canal. 
559 On board a liner in the Suez Canal. 
280 Ready for a load. 

157 Freighter loaded with copper. 

254 Battleship in the Panama Canal. 
296 Wreckage of the battleship Maine. 
100 A group of battleships and a cutter. 
242 Submarines and larger navy vessels. 

313 A modern dredge at work. 
415 Whaling ship with whales. 

433 Scows in the harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 

457 Gondolas and launches in the Grand Canal, Venice. 

459 Pleasure boats on Lake Como, Italy. 

511 Peculiar native boats, Ceylon. 

514 " Tenement " boats, Canton, China. 

525 With sail ready for the breeze. 

546 Native houseboats, Philippine Islands. 

16. Design in the Arts Allied to Architecture 

(a) See Architectural Ornament, this classification. 

(b) See Bridge Design, this classification. 

(c) Furniture 
Chairs and tables. 
373 Sturdy simplicity: good chair design. 

33 Colonial and English furniture: Chippendale near the window. 

92 Office furniture pleasing in design. 



418 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

352 Richly carved throne chairs of the Gothic period. 

417 Arm chair in the foreground and the furniture against the walls 
are of the French Louis XIV design ; upholstered chairs " Mon- 
grel." 

533 Refreshing simplicity. 

532 Well designed stools. 

536 Fine in line and proportion. 

409 Interesting chairs and spinning wheel. 

448 Light, graceful and comfortable willow furniture. 

Fireplaces and mantels. 

372 Rugged dignity and simplicity. 

33 Pleasing Colonial design. 

92 Classic design in a mantel. 

Canopy. 

352 Canopy over thrones in Perpendicular Gothic. 

(d) Objects in Stone 
498 Shape nicely adjusted to purpose. 

292 A crude affair but effective. 

5 The process of making. 

460 An impressive monument. 

282 Fine urn-shaped finials. 
560 A majestic sentinel. 

(e) Objects in Metal 
Lighting fixtures. 

417 Candles singly and in multitude. 

352 Elaborate candle standards (candelabra) and gas chandeliers. 

92 Typical modern designs for electric light wall brackets and 

chandeliers. 

331 An interesting old street light. 

337 A fine bracket and street light. 

381 A many sided lantern for street lighting. 

351 A pleasing design for a street lamp. 

486 A post of steel construction. 

340 A cluster of lights with substantial post. 

380 Gas light and electric side by side. 

406 The suspended electric arc light. 

312 Tall post with arc light. 

521 A Chinese street light. 

Railings. 

9 Simple, refined design for fence and gate. 
336 A good example of wrought iron. 
534 An effective design for a fence. 

283 Iron railing around a monument. 



ARCHITECTURE 419 

Bells. 

80 Our Liberty Bell exhibits fine lines. 
241 A most interesting grouping. 
484 Plenty of chance for choice. 

Coffee Pot. 
33 An interesting piece of pewter. 

(f) Baskets 

263 Basket weaving — American Indians. 

17 Baskets in commercial use. 

117 Splint basket for carrying cotton. 

108 Sturdy baskets for heavy loads. 

375 Market baskets in Cork, Ireland. 

378 Coal baskets in Ireland. 

409 Norwegian basket holding wool. 

423 Large market basket. 

437 A well made basket and a full load. 

572 Closely woven baskets in the center of the picture. 

530 An interesting Japanese basket. 

548 Two kinds of baskets used in the Philippines. 

550 A flat kind of basket used in the Orient. 

(g) Pottery 

58 Firing tableware. 

59 Decorating tableware. 

33 On the table ready for use. 

385 Market where all sorts of common dishes are sold. 
292 Crudely shaped pottery jar at the right. 
487 Interesting milk bottles in Russia. 
542 Peculiar shaped pottery in Korea. 
519 Common dishes of China. 

(i) Various Objects 
372 Simple but effective and pleasing plate and dish rack. 
565 A bit of attractive cabinet-work. 
409 A spinning wheel such as we have all seen. 
506 A quaint spinning wheel and a crude loom. 

80 Well designed standard for the Old Liberty Bell. 
288 A richly ornamented cross. 
352 A beautifully carved canopy. 
521 Screen-like faqade of a Chinese building. 

See Architectural Ornament, Bridge Design, and Design in Industrial 
Products, this classification. 



34. WOOD — SOURCES AND USES 

By GEORGE M. BRACE, M.A. 

DIRECTOR MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, ST. PAUL, MINN. 

Wood has been used since the earliest times as a means of 
producing fire; in making instruments for the securing of 
food; as a means of furnishing clothing for the body, and as a 
shelter against the elements. 

The oldest Greek temples were built of wood, the later stone 
temples being faithful copies, even to the wooden pegs used 
for fastenings. 

The ancients used wooden spears, bows and arrows, war 
clubs and catapults in warfare and in the hunt. Hoes, 
plows, and carts used in agriculture were of wood. Cloth 
for clothing was of woody fiber, paper for writing was of 
the same fiber. The American Indian built his home of 
wooden poles covered with the bark of the birch tree, and 
made his thongs from the inner bark of the cedar tree ; his 
canoes were made from birch bark and logs hollowed out 
by fire and primitive adzes. 

Wood still occupies the most important place as a material 
for house construction and furnishing, and will continue to 
hold that place until forced out by ruthless waste and lack of 
forestization. 

1. SOURCES 

162 A load of logs at the Kettle River landing, Minnesota Pineries. 
White pine (see also 265) is found in the northern part of the 
United States and in Canada and has been the most valuable tree 
in North America. The wood is soft, straight-grained, and 
yellowish-white in color. It is easily worked and stands well 
all kinds of weather conditions. Its principal use is for lumber 
in building operations. It has been so carelessly lumbered in 
the United States that little or no provision has been made for 
replenishing the extensive forest lands denuded by lumber com- 
panies and fires, while the pine forests of Europe (especially 
420 



WOOD 421 

those in Germany, view 388) have been so carefully lumbered 
that they furnish a perpetual income to their owners. 

107, 98 Georgia pine. It is sometimes called hard pine, long-leaved 
pine and yellow pine and is much used where great strength 
is required, as in girders and beams for mills, warehouses, etc. 
It has a beautiful grain and so is used for interior finish and 
flooring. It grows upon the sandy plains of the Southeast and 
yields besides lumber, resin, turpentine, tar, and fiber (which 
is made from the needles). It is the most valuable pine in the 
United States. 

224 Felling a Douglas fir tree in Oregon. The most valuable tree on 
the Pacific Coast. The tree fellers usually cut the tree off 
several feet above the ground where it has a smaller diameter, 
also the tree near the roots is full of pitch and is not considered 
first class lumber. The fir tree grows to a great height and 
of large diameter and being very straight it is used for masts 
and booms for derricks. It is somewhat similar to white pine 
in grain, but is more difficult to work and splits more easily. 

229 The redwood trees belong to the sequoia family. They furnish a 
very cheap substitute for white pine and fir. They grow to 
an immense size. The wood is reddish in color but is soft and 
does not hold nails well. However, it resists the elements and 
so is used for outside finish for buildings. 

246, 262, 412 Spruce resembles white pine but splits more easily and 

is used extensively by paper mills in making pulp for paper. 
The demands of these mills for pulp wood is so great as to 
threaten the extermination of that kind of timber. 
70 Group of second growth chestnut trees. The chestnut is a soft 
wood with a beautiful open grain much used for interior finish- 
ing. It was formerly a very abundant timber in some of the 
eastern states but the demand for the young trees for telephone 
and telegraph poles has made great inroads on the chestnut 
forests. Pennsylvania has still a large amount of standing 
chestnut timber, but a tree disease, the chestnut blight, threat- 
ens the destruction of these woods. 

162 Some small birch trees (standing) ; 130 Maple; 146 Oak tree (in 
background) ; 369 Oak and ash in Scotland. These broad- 
leafed hardwood trees, maple, birch, oak and ash, are used for 
furniture making and interior finishing. They all grow in for- 
ests in nearly all climates. 

255, 297, 307, 552, 570, 577, 554 Show tropical and sub-tropical for- 
ests where abundant rain and sunshine assure rank growth. 

531, 538, 546, 550 Show bamboo tree used in various ways, almost 
indispensable in the Orient. It is very light and strong, much 
stronger in proportion to its weight than any other wood. 

247, 249, 301, 551, 566 The palm tree is very useful in the manu- 

facture of rope and fabric and some varieties furnish food and 
drink for the natives. 
586 The Eucalyptus trees of Australia furnish a good timber and 
the gum is valuable in medicine. 
For further sources see Plants and Plant Associations. 



422 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 



2. LUMBERING 

224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy Northwest showing 

method of felling, Oregon. 
162 Hauling logs to the river landing, Minnesota Pineries. 
1 Landing and scaling logs, Aroostook woods, Maine. 

215 Great chained log rafts containing millions of feet of lumber on 

the Columbia River, Wash. The log rafts are towed in this 
manner to the mills and sometimes across the ocean. 

216 Logs in the mill pond ready to be manufactured. 

509 Oriental. Giant beasts of burden. Patient elephants hauling logs 
from the Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. 



3. MANUFACTURING AND SHIPPING 

216 Fort Blakely Mills, largest in the world, near Seattle, Puget 

Sound, Wash. 

217 Ships being loaded with lumber, Puget Sound, Wash. 
170 Piles of lumber for construction purposes, Keokuk, Iowa. 

523 Primitive manufacturing. Chinamen sawing timbers for the Jap- 
anese army, Manchuria. 



4. USES 
(a) Fuel 

Firewood 
As fuel all kinds of timber is used, being cut into lengths for stoves 
and fireplaces. Since it is bulky and difficult to ship, the kind of wood 
used for fuel in any given region is governed by the nearby local 
growths. 

162, 224, 1 The forests supply abundant fuel. The lumbermen wish 
only the logs, leaving great quantities of tops and branches of 
the trees that are available as cord wood for fuel. 

412 Showing timber cut to a size where it could be readily split for 
use in the wood stove. It may be used without splitting and 
in even greater length in the open fireplace common in Grand- 
father's day. 

113 A type of the pioneer cabin with fireplace built as an addition 
to the house. These were open fireplaces where logs were 
burned and cooking done on the hot coals or in vessels sus- 
pended from an iron crane which swung over the fire. 

372 Shows a modified form of the open fireplace. Here a grate has 
been built in and the beginning of the stove idea is apparent. 
The steam heating equipment shown in this scene is, of course, 
quite modern. 



WOOD 423 

124 In the rear we see piled against the brick building a quantity of 

wood cut for use in the stove. 
467 Immense piles of firewood on the banks of the Danube, Belgrade, 

Serbia. 

Charcoal 

103 Wood as charcoal is also used as a fuel for heating homes, espe- 
cially in warm climates when artificial heat is needed. Before 
the manufacture of coke, charcoal was much used for reducing 
iron ore. Here we see them changing wood into charcoal. 

543 Korean charcoal carriers who deliver the fuel supply to the homes. 

(b) Shelter 

263 The Indian uses poles covered with birch bark as a shelter. 

113, 409 The pioneer built his log cabin from hewn logs cut in clear- 
ing his land. 

124, 159, 165, 358 Barns and outbuildings for sheltering cattle and 
storing crops are constructed mainly of wood. 
9, 10 Houses built of wood in the United States ; 249, 255 Panama ; 
291 Guatemala; 299 Cuba; 343 Greenland; 399, 402 Holland; 
409, 411 Norway; 418 Sweden; 445 Switzerland; 534, 535 Ja- 
pan; 550 Philippines; 591 New Zealand. 

(c) In Mining Operations 

74, 75, 77, 78, 155, 581 Great quantities of heavy timbers are used 
in mining operations, to support the roofs, construct shafts and 
to build tramways. 

70, 122 Oil well derricks consume quantities of wood and resemble 
the forests they are displacing. 

(d) Clothing 

551, 566, 570 Many tropical trees, mainly palms, furnish material for 

clothing. 
552 The hemp tree furnishes material for the famous Manila ropes. 

(e) Wooden Shoes 

402, 403 Wooden shoes worn by the people of Holland. 
532 All sorts and sizes. A Japanese shoe shop. The shoes are made 
of wood and rice straw. 

(f) Wood Carving 

443 Wood carver, Meiringen, Switzerland. 

352 House of Lords, fine example interior carving. 

33 Hand carved teak wood chest. 

92, 89, 417 Fine examples of carved furniture. 
521 Fine example of wood carving on Chinese building. 

(g) Paper 

412 Blocks of wood being converted into wood pulp for the manu- 
facture of paper, Norway. The pulp mills are second only to 



424 INDUSTkl YL AK IS 

the lumber mills in the quantity of timber consumed in the 
manufacture of paper. 

(h) Food 

44, 175 Apple; 85 Peach; 234 Almond; 237, 238 Orange; 259 Papaya; 
294 Banana; 303 Cocoa; 551 Coconut. Broad leafed trees fur- 
nish our supply of fruit and nuts. 
130 Maple trees are a source of sugar and syrup. 
537, 538 The mulberry tree furnishes food for the silkworm. 

(i) Turpentine and Tar 

107 The southern pine is a source of turpentine and tar products. 

(j) Miscellaneous Uses 

426 Airplane; 316, 152, 31 Automobiles; 175, 153, 48, 429, 438, 556 
Barrels; 17, 393, 409, 359, 263 Baskets; 375, 439, 430, 514, 546, 326 Boats; 
56, 46, 327, 469 Boxes; 442 Bridges; 44, 160, 162, 177, 181, 562 Farm 
machinery; 388, 310, 465, 447, 204 Fences; 33, 41, 92, 89, 88, 352, 448 
Furniture; 577, 494, 266, 585, 426 Gun stocks; 43, 115, 267, 420 Rail- 
road cars; 163, 330, 43 Railroad ties; 342, 344, 556, 559, 280 Ships; 
344, 345 Skis; 308, 309, 324, 449, 43 Telegraph and telephone poles; 
47, 71, 138, 147, 311, 378, 396 Wagons and carts; 554 Cart wheels; 223 
Wind break on sand dunes. 



35. METALS — SOURCES AND USES 

By HARRY S. BITTING 

PRESIDENT WILLIAMSON FREE SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TRADES, 
WILLIAMSON SCHOOL, PA. 

Metals have been known to man for centuries and in the 
earlier periods of history were fashioned into implements of 
war, later into crude culinary utensils, then into ornaments and 
a great variety of useful articles. The process of procuring 
usable quantities has improved very greatly in recent years, and 
makes available an almost unlimited supply. Metals of various 
kinds are being used in all industrial effort in the form of ap- 
pliances and equipment for production and manufacture of 
other metal usable products, and in fact for all kinds of prod- 
ucts known to man. Its very general use is clearly illustrated 
in the pictures listed below : 

I. SOURCES 
Mining Camps 

This group illustrates the location of mining camps, where some of 
the various metals are taken from the earth. 
187 Richest mining district in the world, Butte, Mont. 
246 Gold miners' camp north of Arctic circle, Alaska. 
243 Gold -miners encamped at foot of Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. 
287 Gold and silver mining camp, El Oro, Mexico. 
214 Silver mining camp, Nevada. 

Mining Operations 

Here we have a series of mining operations representing those below 
ground, and two styles of surface mining ; namely, steam shovel surface 
work and placer mining. 

163 The most modern method of surface mining. 

187 Plant in which copper metal is extracted from the ore. 

155 Loading cars with copper ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Michigan. 

287 Rich gold and silver mining center, El Oro, Mexico. 

579 Underground mining of gold quartz by the old method of hand 

picking. 
225 Using the force of water under pressure to dislodge the earth in 
gold mining. 

425 



426 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — METALS 

245 Hand method of mining used in working shallow streams, or 
banks of large streams, also used by prospectors in locating 
profitable workings. 

214 Silver mining, entrance to mines and culm piles, Nevada. 

II. PREPARATION OF METALS FOR THE MARKET 

Under this heading appears a list of scenes showing the various 
operations employed in the preparation of metal for the market. Here 
are smelters and concentrators for the rarer metals which are used 
principally in the manufacture of jewelry, and by our government in 
making coins ; also the blast furnace where iron ore is converted into 
pig iron and later refined for the manufacture of steel in its various 
forms. 

Iron and Steel 

62 Plant in which metal is separated from the ore by heavy blast 

furnace process. 

63 Machines for carrying molds into which the molten ore is dis- 

charged from the furnace. 

64 End of the molding machine illustrated in 63 from which the pigs 

are emptied into the cars. 

65 Modern and most efficient method of conveying molten metal from 

the furnace to the molds. 

66 Steel ingot on the " table " of the " blooming " mill. 

67 Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into lengths 

by buzz saw, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
116 Steel furnace in Alabama's great iron center, Birmingham. 
61 Pittsburgh, the principal city of metal industries in the world. 

Copper 

156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla Mines, 

Michigan. Note difference in process between this picture and 
65. 

157 Loading 1400 tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. 

Gold 

203 Most modern process of separating gold metal from the ore. 

Silver 

334 Refining silver in smelter at the famous mining center of Cerro 
de Pasco, Peru. 

Zinc and Lead 

176 Shaft house, smelter and tailing pile, zinc and lead mines, Joplin. 
Mo. 

III. ASSEMBLING METAL PARTS OF MACHINES 

The different parts of a piece of complicated machinery are often 
manufactured in several different factories with such precision that 
when assembled they fit perfectly. 



VARIOUS USES OF METALS 427 

82 General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

150 Assembling room — chassis ready for engines — automobile plant, 

Detroit, Mich. 

IV. TESTING MACHINERY 

Many experts are required in every large machinery shop to test 
the different articles as manufactured to see that the different parts 
have the exact measurements and contain no flaws in the materials 
used. 

151 Experts testing motors in automobile plant, Detroit, Mich. 

V. VARIOUS USES OF METALS 

Metals are used as a whole or a part of practically all machinery 
employed in the manufacturing industries. The classification below 
indicates some of the many uses. 

Money Making 

84 Presses used by the United States government in the manufacture 

of metal coins. 
94 Machinery used in the manufacture of paper money. 

Steel and Iron Tools in Quarrying 

3 Steel drill and hammer used in quarrying operations. 

4 Quarry in which steam power drills are used. 

5 Hand and power steel chisels used in stone decorative carving. 

Power Plant Equipment 

171 Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied by power from the 
great dam at Keokuk, Iowa. 

Paper Making 

19 Rags cut and washed by machinery for use in the manufacture of 

paper. 

20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 

Automobile Tire Making 

132 Machinery used in the manufacture of auto tires. 

Machines for Fabric Manufacture 

Machines are constructed principally of metal for the manufacture 
of cotton, linen, wool and silk fabrics, and our next large and very 
important group illustrates very clearly the equipment used in fabric 
manufacture. This group makes clear the broad expanse of the industry 
and the use of machinery in its connection, as a number of places in 
this country are illustrated, as well as the interior of plants in foreign 
countries. Metal machinery is also used in the manufacture of shoes, 
plate glass, and in fact in about all the manufacturing industries in this 
country. 



428 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — METALS 

Cotton 
125 Cotton gin, Greenville, Tex. 
286 Carding room, cotton mills, Orizaba, Mexico. 

14 Spinning cotton yarn in the great textile mills, Lawrence, Mass. 

15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Lawrence, 

Mass. 

16 General view in large printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, 

Mass. 

Linen 

268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, linen industry, Canada. 

269 Weaving the linen fabric, linen industry, Canada. 

40 Folding and ironing linen collars by machinery, Troy, N. Y. 

Wool 
145 Shearing sheep with power driven shears. 
18 Doubling frame in a large woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. 
81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

Silk 

23 First drawing or straightening of fibers, silk industry (spun silk), 

S. Manchester, Conn. 

24 Spinning, silk industry, S. Manchester, Conn. 

53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth in extensive silk mills, at 

Paterson, N. J. 

54 Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 

55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, 

N.J. 
541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants, American 
machinery and American methods, Kiryu, Japan. 

Machinery Replacing Handwork in the Tanning Industry 

272 Scraping the hair from the hides roughly by machinery, Canada. 

Manufacture of Shoes by Metal Machinery 

12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, in a Massachusetts shoe factory. 

41 General view sewing room, large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 

Metal Appliances in the Manufacture of Plate Glass 

134 Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Ross- 

ford, O. 

135 Polishing plate glass after grinding, Rossford, Ohio. 

Excavating 

The old style method of pick and shovel excavating is replaced by the 
powerful steam shovel which contains a complete operating and pro- 
pelling power plant. 

250 Site of the Gatun Lock, looking south from the lowest lock towards 
Lake Gatun, Panama Canal route. 



TRANSPORTATION 429 

251 Excavations measuring 500 feet deep in Gaillard Cut, Panama 

Canal. 

Railway Transportation 

Metal is used in all kinds of railway transportation equipment such as 
tracks, bridges, cars and locomotives, for both freight and passenger 
service. 

43 A busy path of commerce in central New York, four track rail- 
way, electric road at right, Erie canal at extreme left. 

128 A comprebensive view of smaller unloaders at work on the ore 

docks, Conneaut. 

129 A trainload of coal fresh from Pittsburgh fields for Lake Superior 

consumption, Conneaut. 

Water Transportation, Shipping and Naval Vessels 

Water transportation is largely dependent upon metal of all kinds 

for hulls of vessels, power plant and auxiliary machinery ; in fact, 

all but a very small percentage of this equipment is made of metal. 

52 Great ocean liners at the docks, Hoboken, N. J., showing upper 

Manhattan Island and Hudson River. 
154 Greatest canal traffic in the world, busy scene in the ship canal, 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 
164 Looking between ore docks 2 and 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 

252 North over Gatun Locks and sea level entrance to Panama Canal, 

Atlantic Ocean in the distance. 

253 South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, emergency dam in 

position — A busy scene on the Panama Canal. 
242 Submarines in the foreground and battleships and torpedo boats 
in the background, San Diego Bay, Calif. 

254 U. S. S. Missouri, the first battleship to pass from the Atlantic 

to the Pacific without " rounding the Horn," Panama Canal. 
296 General view of the wrecked battleship Maine. 

Bridge and Elevated Railway Construction 

Metal as used in bridge and elevated railway construction in all parts 
of the world. 

27 The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York, N. Y. 
31 Many forms of transportation required in large centers of popu- 
lation, New York City — elevated railroad, surface cars, auto- 
mobiles and entrance to subway. 
101 Harpers Ferry, W. Va. 
330 In the heart of the rugged Cordilleras Mountains, the Cofa Bridge 

on the Oroya Railway, Peru. 
366 Highlanders in native costume at the great Forth Bridge, one 
and one-half miles long, spanning the Firth of Forth, Queens- 
ferry, Scotland. 
379 Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 
392 The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 



430 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — METALS 

470 The great railway bridge over the Danube River at Cerna-Voda, 

Roumania. 
500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River in Delta of the 

Ganges, Calcutta, India. 
575 Scene above bridge on the Cape to Cairo Railway, over Zambezi 

River, near Victoria Falls, Africa. 

Oil Well Drilling and Preparation of Oil for the Market 

Oil well drilling, preparation for the market, and storage of the crude 
and finished products are dependent largely upon metal for desirable 
equipment. 

69 Standing at right of man filling shell is steel drill. 

122 Spindle Top, an important oil well region near Beaumont, Texas. 

123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Port Arthur, Texas. 

Metal Saws Being Used in This Country and Abroad 

Metal made saws are used extensively throughout the world as is 
indicated by the pictures illustrating their use in this country and in 
Japan. 
67 Red-hot steel beam being cut by buzz saw, Pittsburgh. 
224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy northwest, showing 

method of felling, Oregon. 
523 Chinamen sawing timbers for the Japanese Army, Manchuria. 

Chains and Cables 

215 Metal chains used in fastening logs together for purpose of water 
transportation. 

471 Chains used for fastening vessels to the docks. 
27 Cables used in large bridge construction. 

75 Chain used for attaching mine car to hauling cable. 
379 Cables used in long span suspension bridges. 

Metal Used in Cannon Construction 

73 Old style brass cannon, Gettysburg, Pa. 
39 Brass cannon used in Revolutionary War, West Point, N. Y. 
254 Modern steel guns on United States battleship Missouri. 

Metal Used in Bells and Chimes 

This group of pictures represents bells cast of a metal alloy which 
is made up of several ingredients and tuned for chimes, church tolling 
and other purposes, the principal one of which has been the casting of 
the dear old Liberty Bell now resting in the Cradle of Liberty, Inde- 
pendence Hall, Philadelphia. 

80 The old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 
241 San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 
484 The great bell market at the fair, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. 

71 Small bronze bells on harness. 



MODERN METHODS OF AGRICULTURE 431 

Modern Methods of Agriculture 

Within the last twenty-five years methods of agriculture have been 
completely revolutionized by the use of labor saving machinery and 
devices of various kinds, which have made an extensive demand upon 
metal for a principal part of their construction. The machines and 
devices in which metal plays an important part are represented in the 
following groups, under sub-headings, showing clearly their applica- 
tion in modern methods of agriculture. 

Spraying 

44 Orchard spraying by use of metal force pump. 

» 

Bnttcrmaking 

45 Metal trimmed, power butter churns. 

Milk Bottle Filling 

46 Automatic machine for filling and capping bottle of milk. 

Preparation of Soil 

178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor, S. Dak. 

179 Making a good seed bed — tractor drawing double disk and three- 

section tooth harrows, S. Dak. 

180 Manure spreader followed by tractor plowing sod near Omaha, 

Neb. 
332 Tractor with cable drawing harrow and pulverizer to prepare soil 
for planting sugar cane, Lima, Peru. 

Cultivation of Crops 
198 Cultivating a field of beets in Colorado. 
207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 

Drainage of Swamp Land 
161 Reclaiming swamp land — digging ditch with tractor and laying 
drain tile, Wisconsin. 

Harvesting Crops 
136 Modern methods in corn harvesting — cutter and binder at work 

on an Indiana farm. 
160 Harvesting and loading silage corn in Wisconsin's famous dairy 

region. 
166 Potato digging machines at work in the famous potato region of 

the Red River valley, Moorhead, Minn. 

181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader on the farm of W. J. 

Bryan, Lincoln, Neb. 

218 Harvesting in the great West — combined reaper and thresher, 
Washington. 

233 A combined steam harvester which reaps, threshes and sacks, Cali- 
fornia. 

357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. 



36. CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 

By CHARLES M. SPOFFORD, S.B. 

HAYWARD PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN CHARGE OF THE 
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND SANITARY ENGINEERING OF 
THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY « 

The growth of civilization may be clearly traced by the 
varying uses which man from time to time has made of stone. 
The crude stone implements of labor and defense developed 
by primitive man clearly marked his supremacy to the beasts 
in providing for his material needs; the beautiful statues of 
the Greeks, and the marvelous cathedrals of the Middle Ages 
testify to the growth of his spirit; the great stone and con- 
crete structures of today to the wonderful development of his 
mind. 

Although the qualities of strength, permanence, and beauty 
found in stone have been of the highest importance to man, 
its characteristic of decomposing into fertile soil under the 
long-continued influence of rain and frost has been indispen- 
sable to his very existence. As explained in the chapter on 
Weathering in the classification on Natural Forms and Forces, 
and in the chapter on Soils in the Agriculture group, the 
earth would be a barren desert void of animal and vegetable 
life were it not for the decomposed rock of which its soil is 
entirely formed. 

The development of other materials of construction in re- 
cent years has tended to diminish to a considerable degree, 
the use of natural stone for constructive purposes, and while 
it is still extensively employed for important buildings, bridges 
and dams, and for street pavements in our large cities, it is pos- 
sible that in the modern concrete, we have at last developed 
an artificial stone which may ultimately prove more valuable 
for constructive purposes than natural stone. 

Concrete is the name given to a compound formed of ce- 
ment, sand, and small stones, mixed with water until it flows 

432 



CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 433 

sluggishly, and then poured into molds to form any desired 
shape. If concrete is made with special care out of selected 
materials, a fine grained substance receiving the name of ar- 
tificial stone is obtained. This substance very closely re- 
sembles natural stone and may be used for both exteriors and 
interiors. It may even be molded into intricate patterns 
closely resembling stone carvings. Concrete as generally 
used for frames of buildings as well as for cellar floors 
and the like, is, however, coarse in appearance and sometimes 
shows plainly the grain of the timber molds in which it is 
formed. It can be given a pleasing appearance either by the 
use of stone cutting tools, or by a process resembling sand- 
papering followed by rubbing. 

While concrete was used by the Romans, the Pantheon in 
Rome furnishing a notable example, it did not come into gen- 
eral use until the twentieth century, when the possibility of 
strengthening it greatly by steel rods to take the pulling-apart 
strains, which concrete cannot resist, was first extensively 
utilized. 

Since 1900, the employment of this new building material, 
called in this country " reinforced concrete " and in England 
" armoured concrete " and sometimes called " the stone with 
a steel backbone " has increased with tremendous strides, and 
one now sees it employed in some way or other in practically 
all pieces of architectural and engineering construction, its 
rapidly growing use for roadway surfaces being one of the 
most recent phases of its development. The era when stone 
implements were commonly used by man is called the Stone 
Age ; possibly the near future may go down in history as the 
Concrete or Artificial Stone Age. 

I. STONE. 

Crude Stone Utensils 

292 Crude stone table and rolling pin for preparing food, as used in 
Spanish America. 

410 Stone used as a primitive stove for bread baking in Norway. 

498 Native women grinding wheat in Palestine. This scene shows 
crude stone utensils for preparing flour, still widely used among 
primitive peoples. The same method was used in our own flour 
mills until recently, the power being furnished by steam or 
water. The burr stone process has now been replaced by the 
roller process. 



434 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

Some Ancient Stone Ruins 

205 Ruined homes of the cliffdwellers in the Mesa Verde, Colorado. 
284 Pyramid of Sun, San Juan, Teotihuacan, Mexico. 
331 Massive stone walls in the old Incan Palace, Cuzco, Peru, S. A. 
452 The Colosseum, the " King of Ruins," Rome, Italy. Capable of 

seating about 80,000 people before its partial destruction. 
478 Ruins of the Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece. 
561, 564, 565, 566 Egyptian pyramids. Tombs of the rulers of Egypt 

about 4000 B. C. 
565 The Sphinx, Gizeh, Egypt. A colossal and mysterious statue. 
568 The famous stone ruins at Karnak, Egypt. 

Some Sources of Building Stone 

3 Quarrying granite at Concord, N. H. Drilling preparatory to 

splitting. 

4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt., said to be the largest single quarry 

opening in the world. From this shaft the veins of marble are 
mined in various directions. 

5 Chiseling marble — architectural department — Vermont Marble 

Company, Proctor, Vt. 
51 Picturesque palisades of the Hudson River. Great quantities of 
stone were removed from the cliffs until this area was set aside, 
as a public park to prevent the destruction of its beauty. 

NOTE : For a general idea of rock formation throughout the 
world, see the classification on Natural Forms and Forces, and 
for both granite and marble industries in detail, see the Key- 
stone View Company's general catalog. 

Some Noted Stone Buildings 

87 The Capitol; 91 The White House; 95 Congressional Library; 
309 Municipal Theater, Sao Paulo; 315 Government buildings, Buenos 
Aires ; 340 National University, Caracas, Venezuela ; 349 Tower of 
London; 350 Westminster Abbey; 351 Bank of England, London; 367 
Stirling Castle; 376 Blarney Castle; 383 The Reichstags-Gebaude, Ber- 
lin ; 384 Royal Palace, Berlin ; 387 Cathedral, Nuremburg ; 424 Grand 
Opera House, Paris ; 425 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris ; 429 The Cathe- 
dral, Marseilles; 432 The Prince's Castle, Monaco; 436 Alhambra 
Palace; 451 The Castle of San Angelo and St. Peter's Church; 458 
The Cathedral, Milan; 473 St. Sophia's, Constantinople; 483 The 
Kremlin, Moscow ; 502 The Taj Mahal ; 587 Federal Parliament build- 
ing, Melbourne ; 463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia. 

Stone Combined with Steel in High Buildings 

25 Looking down on New York skyscrapers from the Woolworth 
Tower, itself the highest business structure in the world. These 
buildings are made possible by the use of a steel framework to 
support the floors and to carry the stone curtain walls. 



CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 435 

26 High buildings of lower New York City. 

28 Old City Hall and new Municipal Building, and the World Build- 
ing, from City Hall Park, New York City. 

30 Up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. 

121 Looking north from Colcord Building, over City of Oklahoma. 

139 Heart of great shopping center, State Street, Chicago. 

167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis, Minn. 

230 Market Street, San Francisco. 

273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Canada. 

Stone as Masonry for Bridge Abutments and Piers and for Bridge 

Arches 

27 Brooklyn Bridge, New York. A marvel of the world for many 

years because of its great height and span, but now surpassed 

by other bridges. 
174 The Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Missouri. A famous steel arch 

bridge with stone piers. 
348 London Bridge. The most noted bridge of history. 
366 The great Forth Bridge spanning the Firth of Forth, Queensferry, 

Scotland. Pending the completion of the bridge across the St. 

Lawrence River at Quebec, this bridge had the longest clear 

span in the world. 

391 Bridge at Bingen, Germany. An attractive stone arch struc- 

ture. 
379 Stone abutment and pier of suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 

392 Steel arch bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany, with stone 

piers. 
397 Stone arch bridge across the Meuse, Namur, Belgium. 
450, 451 Roman stone arch bridge over the Tiber. 
470 The railway bridge over the Danube River at Cerna-Voda, Rou- 

mania. Made famous by its importance in the European war. 

Stone Construction for Irrigation Dams 

Great dams such as these may have their interiors formed of concrete 
but they are usually faced with stone. 

210 The Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Ariz. Instrumental in re- 
claiming vast areas by irrigation. Composed of concrete faced 
with stone. 

569 The Assuan Dam, Egypt, built to control the waters of the Nile 
for irrigation purposes. 

Stone as Monuments 

Stone has always been a favorite material for the record of personal 
and historical events. 

10 Granite marker on the Common at Lexington, Mass. 

36 Tomb stones in the cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. 
146 Lincoln's tomb, Springfield, 111. 
283 Soldiers' monument, Chapultepec, City of Mexico. 



436 IXDUSTRIAL ARTS 

288 The sacred shrine on Cholula Pyramid, Mexico. 

385 Coblenz, Germany. 

416 Monument, Stockholm, Sweden. 

433 Columbus monument, Barcelona, Spain. 

450 Egyptian obelisk in court of St. Peter's Cathedral; also Castle of 
St. Angelo, and the Emperor Hadrian's tomb. 

460 Monument to Empress Maria Theresa, Innsbruck, Austria. An 
impressive setting is formed by the Tyrolean Alps in the back- 
ground. 

502 The Taj Mahal, a beautiful marble memorial building. 

560 Monument on the great Nile Bridge in Egypt. 

561, 564, 565, 566 The Pyramids. Monuments of ancient Egypt. 

565 The Sphinx, a noted memorial. 

568 Obelisks and other monuments in ruins at Karnak, Egypt. 

Some Other Uses of Stone 
6, 380, 405, 464, 474, 486 Stone blocks used for pavng in modern 
cities. 
43 Stone as ballast for railway construction. Without stone or other 
similar firm material as ballast, modern high speed traffic would 
not be safe. 
184 Stone fencing. 

206 Petrified tree, forming a natural bridge. 
372 Flat stones for flooring in primitive homes. 
400 Stone walls for dikes. 
412 As an abrasive material. Grindstones converting blocks of wood 

into wood pulp. 
516 Huge stone roller compacting a stone road bed. 
524 Great wall of China. 

II. CONCRETE 

The composition of concrete and its method of manufacture have 
been described in a general way in the statement at the beginning of 
this chapter. It may be stated here that Portland cement, which is 
the vital element in concrete, is obtained from a mixture of calcium car- 
bonate and silicate. These substances are found in many forms, a 
common combination used in cement making being that of limestone and 
cement rock, the latter being itself an argillaceous limestone. A con- 
siderable amount of Portland cement is also manufactured from a 
combination of blast furnace slag and limestone. The stones are mixed 
in the proper proportions and ground to a fine powder which is calcined 
in a kiln. The clinker formed by the calcination is then ground to an 
impalpable powder, as fine as flour, and allowed to season some time 
before using. In case the raw material from which the cement is 
formed consists of soft or wet materials, such as chalk and clay, the 
mixing prior to the calcination is done by the so-called wet process. 

Portland cement mixed with water will gradually harden into a stone- 
like substance either in the air or under water. When stone and sand 
are mixed with it, it also hardens and gives the modern concrete of 
which vast quantities are used. A useful and economical mixture for 



CONCRETE, STONE, BRICK AND TILE 437 

ordinary purposes consists of one part by volume of cement to three 
parts of sand and six parts of stone. 

Concrete has great strength against crushing, but little or none 
against forces tending to pull it apart; hence, steel rods are embedded 
in it to give it such strength where this quality is needed; the ad- 
hesion of the concrete to the rod is very great, and it is this property 
that makes possible the strengthening of the concrete by the rods. 
Reinforced concrete is usually made of one part of cement to two parts 
of sand and four parts of stone. 
123 Modern reinforced concrete factory building. 

154 Concrete construction at the famous locks of the ship canal at 
Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. 

170 Concrete construction in dam, power plant, and locks in the 

Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa. 

171 Concrete columns in the electrical power plant at Keokuk, Iowa, 

where the falls of the Mississippi are converted into electricity. 
210 Concrete spillway construction and a concrete bridge at the Roose- 
velt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona. 

252 Concrete construction at the Gatun Locks, Panama Canal. 

253 South over Gatun Locks, Panama Canal. 

III. CLAY PRODUCTS 

Baked clay products, such as brick, tile, china and other pottery, are 
made by molding wet clay and baking in a kiln until the piece becomes 
hard and strong. Bricks have been used since very ancient times. They 
are mentioned in the Bible, and the Egyptians and Romans made ex- 
tensive use of them ; they still constitute one of the most valuable 
forms of building material. In hot climates, sun-baked bricks made 
out of special clay called adobe are extensively used. In Egypt these 
bricks are formed by mixing the adobe mud with chopped straw to 
give it coherence — the Nile mud lacking in this respect, the difficulty in 
making bricks without straw mentioned in the Bible was by no means an 
imaginary one. After mixing, this material is then molded into blocks 
and dried in the sun. 

Primitive Pottery 
292 Earthenware jar made by Central American natives. 
487 Russian peasants delivering milk in earthenware jars. 
542 White-robed pottery peddlers, Seoul, Chosen. 
564 Egyptian carrying water jar on head. 
572 Some earthenware jars used by African natives. 

Modern Table-Ware 

33 Beautiful chinaware in a well furnished home. 

58 Firing table ware in the noted pottery center, Trenton, N. J. 

59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 
385 Dish market, Coblenz, Germany. 

519 Dishes used by Chinese. 

Terra Cotta 

Tiles are formed of molded clay sometimes coated with a special 



438 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

glaze and hardened by firing in kilns. They may be made of various 
colors and patterns, and have been used for many centuries for decora- 
tive and other purposes. The Alhambra in Spain furnishes a notable 
example of their use in decoration, and other important examples are 
found in the mosques of the Orient. Roof coverings of semi-cylin- 
drical unglazed tiles are common in Spanish-speaking countries, both in 
Europe and America, and are frequently used for important buildings 
in the United States. At the present time, tiles are extensively utilized 
for sanitary purposes, and the bathroom and kitchen of today are 
floored and walled with them, their smooth, water-repelling surfaces be- 
ing dirt and vermin proof. 

171 Terra cotta floor; 299 Santiago, Cuba; 338 Terra cotta roof, La 
Guayra, Venezuela ; 394 In a German town ; 402 Dutch village ; 430 
Cannes, France ; 434 Burgos, Spain ; 436 Granada, Spain ; 475 Athens, 
Greece; 492 Beirut, Syria; 517 Wuchang, China; 526 Tokio, Japan; 
543 Chosen. 

Drain Tile 
161 Reclaiming swamp land by means of tile drains. 

Adobe Brick 

211 Adobe is the building material used. 

281 Buildings constructed of adobe bricks. 
564 Adobe hut on Nile River, Egypt. 

Brick of Fired Clay 
400 Load of brick on boat, Rotterdam, Holland. 
6, 8, 32, 138, 152, 398 Brick used in the construction of buildings 
of various types. 

282 Brick paved roofs in the City of Mexico. 

524 Ancient brick used in construction of the Chinese Wall. 

Clay as a Carrier of Precious Stones 

581 Blue earth clay banks rich in diamonds, Kimberley, South Africa. 



37. LOCAL INDUSTRIES 

By CLIFFORD B. CONNELLEY, Sc.D. 

COMMISSIONER OF LABOR AND INDUSTRY FOR THE 
STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

Fortunately for us, there is no law compelling the child to 
follow the parent's occupation ; there is, however, a psycholog- 
ical compulsion which constrains the average child toward the 
things with which he is familiar. Every child is vastly inter- 
ested in what the grown-up people about him are doing and 
very many of them grow up with the idea of pursuing the same 
work they have seen. 

Usually children cannot visit mills ; they cannot see the ac- 
tual operations that must be performed. In too many families 
the worker disappears at one fixed time and reappears at an- 
other. What happens in between is a dead mystery. These 
views will open to the child the life that goes on about him. 
They will give him accurate ideas, will enable him to think 
himself in relation to actual processes ; and when he finally 
enters some industry, he will adjust himself more easily than 
would be possible if he were in entire ignorance. Surely there 
should be a place in school for this pre-vocational training, for 
it is an important matter that children shall be prepared to 
some degree for the work toward which they are consciously or 
unconsciously tending. 

COAL 

Thousands of men in all the countries of the world are engaged in 
mining. Methods are being improved and safety devices applied so as 
to safeguard the men and at the same time increase the output. Skill 
in handling tools, acquired in Manual Training, is surely a great help. 
It is the chief local industry in many parts of our country, especially 
in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Colo- 
rado, etc. The anthracite coal mining here shown is confined to eastern 
Pennsylvania. 

74 Stripping or surface mining is the simplest form. Steam shovels 
must take off the layer of dirt which covers the coal. Rail- 
roads must be built to market the produce. Mining engineers 
must make the plans for all this work. 
439 



440 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES 

75, 76, 77 Underground mining is more difficult. It calls for great 
strength and carefulness for the use of explosives is dangerous. 
The hole must be properly drilled, the blast carefully prepared 
and then the loose coal shoveled into the car. It is a strong 
man's work. These men should have safety lamps. 

78 The slate picking and (79) breaking and sorting of the coal are 
less important operations. 

IRON AND STEEL 

No industry calls for more carefulness and skill than the iron and 
steel industry. The white-hot or red-hot metal is carried about, 
poured, rolled, cut, etc., and the men must watch every minute and 
must know just what to do to avoid accidents. This strain, even more 
than the labor, tires the workers. The Manual Training work in 
metals is a splendid preparation for the iron industry. 
61 Pittsburgh. Very many of the boys of this region find work in 
the iron and steel mills. This is an important local industry 
in many parts of the country. Coke, limestone, iron ore, etc., 
are put into the blast furnace in proper order and proportions. 
The men must watch very carefully to know when the metal is 
ready to pour and then the furnace is opened very carefully, 
the white-hot metal runs out into the trough shown in the mid- 
dle foreground (63) ; the pig iron molds are filled, run out and 
empty themselves into the car (64). 

65 Filling molds with steel. This work takes the greatest care. The 

furnace men use every precaution against danger in opening 
the furnace and letting the metal run into the ladle. These men 
are regulating the flow into the molds. The work is very hot, 
the metal is white-hot. If the lever were to slip or the ladle 
which holds probably twenty-five tons of metal should slip, lives 
would surely be lost. 

66 These men look very leisurely just now. They are skilled labor- 

ers and their work is very hot and exacting. They keep the 
machine in the best working condition. They watch the rolling 
process very attentively and turn out good work. 

67 This is hot work too. The men must watch very closely, for 

sometimes the end of the red-hot beam which is being moved 
along sticks and the whole thing doubles up and twists about. 
Of course the next beam will be stopped and thrown out. It is 
very dangerous. All these machines are run by skilled laborers. 

COPPER 

Copper mining is a local industry only in certain states, as Michigan, 
Montana, Idaho, Utah and Arizona, but copper working, and especially 
when used with the alloys to form brass and bronze, becomes a local 
industry in every important industrial center. The copper industry is 
a very old one yet it has developed wonderfully in late years because 
of its use in electrical appliances and munitions, and because water does 



PETROLEUM — MARBLE — GRANITE 41 1 

not affect it. Very many young people in the vicinity of the copper 
mines become workers in that industry. 

155 When mines grow large the roofs must be propped with timbers. 

All sorts of precautions must be used for safety. Notice the 
safety lamps. Mechanical drills bore holes into the rock. These 
holes are filled with dynamite which loosens the rock. It is 
then shoveled into cars and taken to the surface. 

156 The smelting of copper is hot work and it needs skilled laborers. 

Notice with what precision and care these men are working. 
The molds are somewhat like pig iron molds, but much smaller. 

157 When molded the copper is ready to be carried by railroad or by 

water to places where it will be made into useful articles. Very 
many boys go into railroading or become sailors on these lake 
vessels. 

PETROLEUM 
The drilling for and pumping of petroleum is a valuable local indus- 
try in such states as Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
nois. Oklahoma, Texas, California, etc., while the refining and handling 
of the products is a local industry in many centers. 

The first productive oil well drilled by Col. E. L. Drake in 1859 in 
Crawford County, Pennsylvania, marks the beginning of the oil indus- 
try in the United States. 

69 To be a successful driller, one must know and be able to judge 

the land which is to be drilled. The machinery must be cared 
for too. The work is hard and calls for judgment and re- 
sourcefulness. 

70 The shooting of wells is a dangerous operation and must be done 

very carefully. 
122 The oil is pumped into pipes and carried to refineries and then to 
the large cities of the United States. Benzine, gasoline, naph- 
tha, kerosene, lubricating oils and paraffin are obtained by re- 
fining petroleum. 

MARBLE AND GRANITE 
There are vast strata of these stones in various parts of the United 
States. As yet the marble and granite industries are local industries 
in New Hampshire, Vermont and Tennessee. Boys entering these in- 
dustries should have instruction in Drawing and Design just such as 
Manual Training offers. We are now depending upon skilled laborers 
who have been trained in European countries. What are we to do 
when the demand exceeds the supply for this type of an artist? 
3, 4 Here is another industry where men must use the greatest 
caution. Holes must be drilled, powder or dynamite used to 
blast the rock loose and the falling or loosened rock must be 
watched. 
5 Work such as this takes a sure hand and a training in drawing. 
The beautiful carvings in stone that decorate our best public 
buildings are done in this way. The work is hard on the lungs. 



442 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES 



THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 

The making of automobiles is a highly localized industry centering in 
Detroit which has exceptional facilities for transportation. 
152 In the Ford factory each man does a specific piece of work. He 

becomes very skilful in that one thing but not necessarily a 

skilled workman. 

150 In the assembling room the manufactured parts are brought to- 

gether in an automobile. 

151 Experts test each engine before it is finally set in place. 
109, 229 The finished automobile. 

TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 

Among the local industries of the cities of the East the making of 
textiles is probably the most important. In such cities as Lawrence, 
Mass., Manchester, Conn., and Paterson, N. J., a large proportion of 
the young people find employment in the textile mills. 

COTTON INDUSTRY 

119 The cotton comes to the mills in bales. 
286 It must first be cleaned and carded. 

14 Spinning makes the cotton into yarn. These girls stand to reach 

quickly. They watch that the thread does not break or snarl. 

15 Much cotton cloth is printed. The design must be made and 

transferred to copper rolls. The Arts and Crafts courses of 
our Manual Training departments are giving good preparation 
for such work. 

16 The cloth is then printed, starched, dried and folded ready for 

market. 

WOOLEN INDUSTRY 

17 Wool must be sorted before it is ready for making into cloth. 
409 It is cleaned and carded. In the United States these operations 

are performed by machinery. 
81 When carded it is ready for spinning. These machines call for 
constant watchfulness and care. 

18 The threads are then joined and twisted to make it of the right 

size and then it is ready for weaving. 

THE SILK INDUSTRY 
All of our silk is imported from other countries. 
540 In Japan the thread is carefully reeled from the cocoons and is 
shipped in skeins. 

22 The skeins must be sorted and weighed. Such work calls for dis- 

crimination. 

23 Usually the raw silk comes in bales and the fibers must be pulled 

apart and laid smooth ready for spinning. 

24 Next the silk is spun into thread and now is ready for weaving. 



AGRICULTURE 443 

S3 Warp must be drawn. This is a very delicate operation. Look 
at the lengthwise thread in a piece of silk lying so closely side 
by side and you will see what these men have done. 

54, 55 Weaving is shown in these views. This is work for skillful 
operators. The threads are very fine, they break and snarl very 
easily and must be watched constantly, else the silk will have a 
flaw. 

AGRICULTURE 
Agriculture is carried on in every part of our country, but condi- 
tions are so different in various places that it really divides itself into 
a grourj of local industries. Cotton, for instance, must be raised in 
the South; wheat on the northern plains, etc. 

One of the greatest advantages of our consolidated rural schools is 
that Agricultural and Manual Training departments can be maintained. 
These raise the agricultural profession to an interesting art, which 
fascinates the learner so that he never desires to abandon it. 

The correct use of tools is an asset to the boy on the farm. He is 

able to do things the blacksmith and carpenter formerly did. 

136, 161, 177 to 180 These are very intricate machines, very liable to 

get out of order. The boy who has had forge work, who can 

set a rivet, replace a valve, who is familiar with machinery, has 

a distinct advantage over the one without such training. A 

farmer is constantly doing work as carpenter and finds his 

Manual Training useful. 

147 He must make a frame for his wagon so that he can haul hay or 

grain. 
124 He may wish to enlarge his wagon oox to carry a bigger load. 
175 He may need to make crates or boxes for fruit or potatoes. 
185 His training in woodworking may be turned to good account when 

he has to build a shed or make a feeding trough. 
56 Again and again farmers must build chicken coops and fasten up 

boxes for nests. 
130 And also he will have learned what trees on his land should be 

cut and what left to conserve his timber land. 
33 Girls in Domestic Science will have learned to keep a clean house. 
They will not, perhaps, have houses of this kind, but they will 
be clean and tasty and the food will be appetizing and nourish- 
ing. 
83 Girls will know how to use garden vegetables, to can tomatoes, 

beans, corn and beets and supply vegetables for winter. 
85, 175 The farm woman who learned in Domestic Art how to pre- 
serve the fruit of the farm in the cheapest and most effective ( 
way has a decided advantage over the less fortunate woman 
who must learn by experimenting. 
15, 22 These two women with their neat shirtwaists and aprons are 
fair types of the girls who have learned in Domestic Art classes 
to sew and to have their clothes neat and well-fitting. Farm 
women used to be so isolated they were careless in dress or did 



444 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES 

not know. That is no longer true. There is no place today 
for the slatternly housewife. 

488, 522, 561, 298 These methods would not bring good results in 
America. No matter what is raised, the ground must be care- 
fully prepared. The method of doing this differs with the 
civilization of the people, the soil, the climate and all existing 
conditions. 

115, 180 The American farmer must study and test his soil so he will 
know how to fertilize correctly and to plow to the right depth. 

179 The ground must be harrowed and then planted. In America all 
this is done by farm machinery. 

357, 147 On smaller fields the reaper and binder will be used with 
good effect ; the grain will be stacked up and later carried 
to the barns to be threshed. 

218 The combined reaper and binder will be used on large fields. This 
leaves the straw in the fields to be plowed under to enrich the 
land. 

177 This thresher is piling up the straw which probably will be re- 
turned to the land. 

147 Oats are raised, harvested and threshed just as wheat. Most of 
the crop is consumed on the farm as food for cattle. 

149, 166, 184, 198 Celery, potatoes, corn, beets, etc., must be cultivated 
to keep them clear from weeds. This can be done by hand 
(105, 419) where labor is cheap. 

198, 207 The cultivator drawn by horses is commonly used in the 
United States. 

527 to 529 From the Japanese could well be learned the lesson of in- 
finite pains. It is only by the most careful methods that small 
country is able to maintain so great a population. 

549, 550 The Filipinos use the most primitive tools and methods in 
their work. 

104 Raising rice in America is different, for here the work calls for 

some slight engineering as well as agriculture. Fields must be 
flooded and drained several times before the rice is ripe. 

105 In most places this work is done with a cultivator drawn by horses. 
184 Corn was unknown to the civilized world before 1492. The 

ground must be carefully prepared and later cultivated if the 
corn is to do well. 

137 Pumpkins are very commonly planted with the corn. 

136 When the corn is ripe, it is cut, the ears are husked and dried. 

The stalks are fed to cattle. 
160 Corn for silage is cut before the frost so the juices will be left 

in the stalks. 
165 On this up-to-date dairy farm, note the large silo from which the 

cattle are fed. 

138 Every farmer needs horses and must know what kind is best and 

how to care for them. 
173 Almost every farm can have a few sheep. They are almost pure 
profit, because they increase rapidly, the wool is cut each year 



MAPLE SUGAR — STOCK RAISING 445 

and there are always animals to be killed for meat. Mutton and 

lamb always bring a good price. 
' 159, 356 No farm is complete without cows to furnish milk and butter. 
57, 403 Cows must be kept clean, people who handle the milk must 

be very clean and all the utensils used in caring for milk must 

be immaculate. Milk dishes must be washed and scalded each 

time they are used. 
56 Almost every farm has chickens. To be really profitable chickens 

must be especially cared for. 
44 No farm is complete without fruit. Today fruit trees must be 

sprayed to keep them healthy. One neglectful farmer can in 

feet a whole district. 
175 Good apples, carefully picked and packed, always find a market. 

Trees must be pruned and kept in good shape in order to yield 

good fruit. 
85 Peach trees demand care but they repay it. 
236, 237 This orange grove and vineyard show the ground cultivated 

and kept clear from grass and weeds. Vines, like trees, must be 

carefully pruned and sprayed. 
108 In Florida fruit raising and market gardening are the chief occu- 
pations. 

MAPLE SUGAR 
130 The maple sugar season is confined to a few days in early spring 
when the sap first flows from the roots up through the trees. 
During this short time the work is fast and furious for the sap 
flows day and night and must be boiled. Almost every farm 
could have enough maple trees to make its own supply of maple 
syrup and sugar. 

STOCK RAISING 

Stock raising is an important local industry on the Western plains 
which are too dry to be farmed without irrigation. Farther east it is a 
local industry near business centers where the produce can find ready 
market. While every farm has some horses and cows, some farms 
make a business of raising certain kinds of stock. 

a. Horses 

138 Percheron horses are heavy draft horses, especially suited to farm 
work. 

398 Belgian draft horses are big horses for heavy work. Both Per- 
cheron and Belgian draft horses are very carefully reared. 

188 On our Western plains are great ranches where horses are half 
wild with very little care in raising. These horses have great 
speed and endurance. 

186 Horses show great intelligence and help in the work. 

207 Horses working in cotton fields. 

b. Cattle 

The kind of cattle a man raises will depend upon what he wants 
from them. 



446 INDUSTRIAL ARTS — LOCAL INDUSTRIES 

364 Jersey cattle give rich milk but they are not good beef cattle. 
They are raised where butter is wanted. 

371 Ayrshire cows give a great quantity of milk not so rich as the 
milk of the Jersey. Ayrshire cows are good ones for a milk- 
man to keep. 

159, 165 Holstein cattle are good for general farm purposes. They 
give a great quantity of milk, moderately rich in butter fats, and 
they are. besides, good beef cattle. 

185, 358, 370 Hereford and Aberdeen Angus cattle are especially good 
beef cattle. A successful farmer must know what kind of cat- 
tle he wants and how to care for them so as to get the largest 
profit. 

127, 186 On the great ranches of the plains, cattle roam almost at will 
till they are ready to be shipped to market. 

140 These are cattle from the Western plains. 

c. Hogs 

172. 183 Hogs well fed and kept clean are almost clear gain to a 
farmer. 

122 Too often pigs are not cared for but are allowed to act as scav- 
engers. Such pork is not first class. 

MEAT INDUSTRY 
Meat packing is a local industry in such cities as Chicago, Omaha 
and Kansas City, railroad centers, to which supplies can be brought 
easily, and from which the prepared meats can be distributed quickly. 

140 In an amazingly short time all these cattle will be killed and 

turned into meat. 

141 Each carcass must be carefully washed and cleaned. 

142 Backbones are split and the carcass again inspected. 

143 Hams are carefully trimmed and prepared. 

144 Even . the trimmings of the meat are prepared for market. All 

these workers must be clean and the prepared meat must be 
inspected in order to comply with the pure food laws. 

DAIRYING 
Dairying is a local industry in and near almost every large city. 
Dairy products are especially valuable in New York, Pennsylvania, 
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Illinois. 

Only in recent years this type of industry has sprung up and now it 
embraces important branches such as cheese factories, ice-cream plants, 
butter factories, etc. 
57 If a man wishes to sell milk in the United States, his cattle and 
barns must be sanitary and all the people and utensils that 
handle the milk must be absolutely clean. 
46 Bottles must be washed and scalded, they must be filled with 
milk and capped, then no dust can enter in delivery. The top 
of the bottle should be washed before the cap is taken out. 



LUMBERING — TRANSPORTATION 447 

45 All the milk of one district may be brought to one factory, the 
cream separated, and churned and made into packages ready for 
market. Creamery butter can be made under absolutely sani- 
tary conditions. Milk from sources not clean must be refused. 

LUMBERING 

In Maine lumbering is one of the most important of local indus- 
tries. White pine is timber most valuable there. In the central states 
hard wood is cut; in the northwest, Douglass fir; and in the south, 
yellow pine. Each locality uses methods best adapted to itself. 

Lumbering is of two kinds, conservative and ordinary. The first 
seeks to treat the forest so that successive crops may be produced. 
The second takes no account of the future ; it cuts only the better part 
of the trees, often destroying young and promising trees in so doing. 
224 The great trees of our western coast were cut so recklessly they 
were rapidly disappearing. Conservative cutting is now being 
done. 
1, 162 These logs in Maine and in Minnesota are taken to a stream 
where they can be floated down to the sawmill. This is hard 
and dangerous work. 

215 Log drivers see that these rafts do not jam. They must keep 

the rafts free and moving. This too is dangerous work. 

216 In the sawmills the logs are cut into lumber by great circular saws. 

TRANSPORTATION 
Communication is now a universal requirement. No place is able 
to live independently in this age. Yet so tremendous an industry can 
never be managed as a unit. It is divided and subdivided. Railroads 
are operated in divisions and divisions in sections. So in its opera- 
tion transportation becomes a local industry, the men working on the 
part of the route near where they live. 

43, 128, 129, 157 Every community gives some of its young people to 
the railroads. At least four men are necessary to run each 
train, two skilled workers and two unskilled. The conductor 
and engineer have a constant mindfulness of orders, watchful- 
ness of signals, of the track and of the train. These are posi- 
tions of great responsibility. Firemen must keep up steam and 
brakemen give signals, couple and uncouple cars and do other 
train work. 
26, 52, 242 Great numbers of men find work on ships. The old time 
sailor of romance is fast being replaced with stokers, engineers 
and all the mechanics needed for steamships run by engines 
instead of sails. 
25 New York; 248 City of Panama; 295 Havana, Cuba; 314 Buenos 
Ayres ; 347 Liverpool ; 429 Marseilles, France ; 433 Barcelona, 
Spain; 525 Fuji-Yama, Japan; 556 Algiers, Algeria. The sail- 
or's life, probably giving the least personal liberty, will always 
have the attractic n of permitting one to see the world. 



38. HYGIENE — HEALTH HABITS 

By MICHAEL VINCENT O'SHEA, B.L. 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

Vigorous health is one of life's greatest blessings. We 
should guard it as one of our chiefest treasures. Not only 
should we zealously care for the store of good health that we 
now possess but we should seek by every means to add daily 
to our healthful vigor. 

Much can be done by the earnest teacher for the health of 
the pupils in her care. Stimulating suggestions as to health 
habits are naturally given by all progressive instructors. This 
set of stereographs and slides can be made the basis of many 
interesting and helpful lessons of this topic. Visualizing the 
work will make it impressive and will fix resolves more firmly 
than is possible with description only. 

1. OUT-OF-DOORS LIFE 
224 Oregon woods. Life in the woods will develop vigor and hardi- 
hood. 
72 Woodcock on nest. The study of birds takes people into the open 
air and is exceedingly interesting. Only sharp eyes can detect 
a woodcock on its nest. Many other birds are protected by 
their coloring. 
60 Atlantic City. Bathing and swimming are the best forms of re- 
laxation and physical exercise. 
83 School garden. Every child in the city should have work in a 

garden in the summer. 
102, 221, 228 United States; 441, 445, 448 Switzerland; 508 India; 367, 
369 Scotland; 344, 345, 346 Antarctic; 377, 382 Ireland; 388 
Germany. The purest and most invigorating air is found in 
mountainous sections. People who live in rugged countries 
are apt to develop vigorous health if they have food and cloth- 
ing enough and good shelter. 
221 Mt. Hood. The great mountainous regions of the West fur- 
nish means of restoring health and vitality to the people who 
live in cities. 
127, 186, 188 Cowboys. Ranch life on the great plains develops 

energy and endurance. 
136, 233, 160, 178, 179, 181, 218 Farm lands, United States. The mod- 

448 



HEALTH HABITS 449 

etn farmer should be the healthiest of men since he lives in the 
great outdoors and machines will do his heaviest work. 

II. HEALTH HABITS IN REGARD TO WORK 

40 Linen collars; 41 Shoe factory. People who sit at their work 
should have frequent opportunity for brief intermissions to 
stand and move about, or they will lose their health. 
62, 65, 66, 67 Iron and steel; 68 Coke; 134 Glass; 156 Copper; 334 
Silver. People who work in metal foundries should have short 
hours and be protected from the extreme heat. 
69 Oil well. Those who work with explosives are under strain 
constantly, and they should have very short hours with the 
best physical conditions. 
74, 75, 76, 77 Coal ; 155 Copper. Workers in mines are usually un- 
dersized and in a low state of health because of lacking light 
and air and of breathing dust. Miners should have short 
hours because their work is so hard and unhygienic. 
135 Work in glass is very trying to health. 
272 The tanning business is injurious to health unless the hours of 

labor are short and the ventilation very good. 
Ill Sponge market. Those who work in the water much of the 
time are likely to suffer with congestion in the respiratory or- 
gans because they are not properly protected. 
21 Jewelry; 11 Shoes; 15 Printing cloth. People who do finely co- 
ordinated work should have frequent relaxation to prevent 
nervous strain. 

III. HEALTH IN REGARD TO FOOD AND DRINK 

44, 175 Apples are necessary in everyone's diet, but they must be 

protected from insect diseases. 
47 Cantaloupes are a valuable addition to one's diet. 
85 Peaches are a valuable adjunct to one's dietary. 

108 Pineapples furnish acids which are very useful in digestion. 

236 California; 390 Germany; 319 Argentina. Grapes when used 
fresh or as raisins are superior food. When used for wine 
their value is lost. Wherever many grapes are raised for wine, 
people will be underfed and over stimulated. 

237, 437 Oranges. One could not over-state the value of ripe oranges 
in one's dietary. 

294 Harvesting bananas. When thoroughly ripened they are luscious 
and nutritious. 

551 Husking coconuts. They contain milk and meat that are nu- 
tritious. 

234 Almonds. Nuts of all kinds make delicious and nutritious food. 

118 Harvesting peanuts. They furnish fine food when roasted or 
made into peanut butter. 

166 Potato digging machines. Potatoes grown in a sandy region 
make a necessarv and delicious food. 

240 Olive oil is a valuable food. In the countries around the Mediter- 



450 HYGIENE 

ranean Sea it is used wherever oil or fat is needed. 'It takes 

the place of butter and lard. 
149 Celery and similar foods must be washed very carefully. 
375 A variety of fresh vegetables helps to keep people in good health. 
198 Beets make a very wholesome food, and should be used freely. 
104, 105 United States; 527, 528, 529 Japan; 550 Philippines. Rice 

constitutes the principal food of many millions of the human 

race. 
479 Greece; 488 Russia; 506 India; 516, 518, 522 China; 529 Japan; 

543 Chosen ; 549 Philippines ; 561, 562, 563 Egypt. People who 

use primitive methods in agriculture and other industries must 

devote most of their energy to getting food enough to sustain 

life. 
218, 357 Wheat. Bread and cereals made from the whole kernel of 

wheat contain all the elements of perfect nutrition. 
498 Palestine. People who live on bread made of the whole grain 

ground in a rather coarse way have better health than those 

who live on fine sifted white flour, with nothing but the starch 

left in it. 
375, 56 Eggs laid by well-fed and well-cared-for hens make an ideal 

food, for the young especially. 
357 Wheat; 358 Cattle. Grains furnish a better and cheaper food 

than beef, as a rule. 
141, 142, 143, 144 Packing houses. The greatest care must be taken 

with flesh food to avoid disease. 
46,57,159,165,411,413 Dairying. In order to secure pure, clean, 

wholesome milk cows must be well cared for and have fresh 

air and wholesome food. Serious diseases are due to unclean 

milk. 
166 Potato; 105 Rice; 140 Cattle. It would be better in every way 

for most people in American life if they ate more of vegetables 

and less of animal food. 
34, 35, 258, 270, 271, 333 Sugar used in moderation is wholesome. 

Used in excess it is the cause of many disorders. 
130 Maple sugar is an excellent food if used sparingly. When used 

too generously it overtaxes the system. 
295,310,311,468 Coffee contains a drug and most people would be 

better off without it. 
373, 530 Tea. Much tea drinking means weakened vitality. Tea is 

a menace to health. 
303 Cocoa makes a much better beverage than tea or coffee when 

used sparingly. If used excessively it is very harmful. 
285 Pulque. Any kind of intoxicating beverage is a poison in the 

system. 
297, 112 Tobacco is harmful and everyone would have better health 

and vigor if he would let it alone. 
IV. HEARING 
12 Shoes; 54 Silk; 82 Locomotive shop. People who work in very 

noisy factories lose keenness of hearing sooner or later. 



HEALTH HABITS 451 



V. BREATHING 

3 Granite; 5 Marble. Care must be taken not to inhale rock dust, 
which is very irritating to the lungs and mucous membranes. 
177 Threshing, North Dakota. In up-to-date threshing men do not 
have to inhale dust as they did in an older day. 

26 New York; 61 Pittsburgh. Where the smoke nuisance is not 
abated, people may suffer with nasal and lung difficulties. 

17 Woolen mill; 19 Paper mill. People who work in wool or cot- 
ton or rags which are not clean often suffer from respiratory 
diseases. 

76 Dust from coal may injure the lungs. 

67 Sawing steel, small particles of iron or steel such as filings or 
dust from grinding machines may also cause lung trouble. 

VI. HEALTH HABITS IN REGARD TO AIR AND LIGHT 

204,263,265 Indians. They had one advantage over people of cul- 
ture — they had fresh air constantly. 
113 Lincoln cabin. People who live in log huts usually have an 

abundance of fresh air. 
279 Labrador. Life in cold regions develops vigor and endurance if 

one has food and clothing enough. 
103 South Carolina. In sections in which much charcoal is burned 

there are always gases which interfere with health. 
93 Washington, D. C. ; 126 The Alamo Plaza. A city cannot be a 
healthful place unless it has many trees, wide streets, and is 
free from smoke and dust. All cities should have many open 
places for relaxation and fresh air as well as for beauty. 
336 Ecuador. Children who do not have opportunity to play out-of- 
doors on grass never develop properly. 
6 Boston tenement. Children who grow up in narrow streets can 

never develop properly. 
30 New York City. In some streets in crowded cities sunlight 

never enters. In this street it enters with difficulty. 
25 New York City. The time will come when the tops of build- 
ings in large cities will be used for playgrounds and recrea- 
tion, especially for children. 
58 Pottery, N. J. Those who work in unventilated, unlighted work 

rooms cannot preserve their health. 
16, 18, 24, 94 Every factory should have an abundance of light and 

air. 
11 Shoe manufacture. A worker's light should come from above, 
not directly in front. 

VII. FATIGUE 

178, 179, 180, 181 Farm machinery. Farmers should get machines to 
do the heavy work of the farm so far as possible. 



452 HYGIENE 

162 Hauling logs, Minnesota. Working with k;gs uses up m\tch en- 
ergy. Workmen should be well fed and well housed. 
84 Mint; 94 Engraving and printing; 152 Ford plant. These em- 
ployees work but 8 hours per day, hence have time for recrea- 
tion to overcome the fatigue from their work. 

181 Harvesting alfalfa ; 147 Oats. Farmers at harvest time work 
long hours but work in the open air gives less fatigue than thf 
same hours and work indoors. 

VIII. CLEANLINESS 

120, 161 Ditching swamp land tends to breed germ diseases. It should 
be ditched and drained. 
7 Boston; 393 Germany; 395 Belgium; 555 Morocco; 572 British 
East Africa ; 481 Russia ; 485 Poland. Much disease is spread 
in communities through dirty, insanitary markets. Markets 
like these are almost sure to spread disease among those who 
patronize them. 
13,244,226,227 Fish. Disease is often spread when care is not taken 

to keep fish clean. 
35 Sugar; 45 Butter. The food here is handled with care, but in 
some food factories little care is taken to keep the food clean, 
so people suffer with digestive difficulties, not knowing what 
the trouble is. 
86 Oysters. Serious diseases are often spread by lack of cleanliness 
in preparing and shipping oysters. 

292 Tortillas. Uncleanliness in preparing food is the cause of num- 
berless disorders. 

572 Africa; 341 Venezuela. Much disease is spread by dirty methods 
in storing and handling goods. 
32 Ellis Island. Serious germ diseases are often brought to our 
shores from foreign lands where the habits of the people are 
unclean. 

431 France. Disease germs cannot be removed from clothing ex- 
cept by boiling. Washing in a river cannot make clothes health- 
ful. 

501 Ganges River, India. Plagues always follow unclean practices 
such as shown in this picture. 

438 Spain. Dusty roads are always a source of disease. 

455 Sicily. People who live in dirt and squalor are never well. 
Cities must be kept scrupulously clean in order to insure 
health. 

474 Constantinople, Turkey. Animals kept on city streets tend to 
pollute the atmosphere. 

503 Delhi, India. It is well to remember that contagious diseases 
readily spread in crowds. 



FINE ARTS 

INTRODUCTION 

By C. VALENTINE KIRB? 

DIRECTOR OF ART EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF 
EDUCATION, PENNSYLVANIA 

Ours has been understood to be a commercial age, depend- 
ent upon the heritage of the past for those things we have gen- 
erally regarded as works of art. Today, however, even the 
casual observer must be impressed with the significance of 
" art " in various phases of our daily life and work. Our 
homes with their furnishings are becoming objects of real 
beauty and comfort, the veritable expression of beauty by their 
makers. Our manufactured products are being refined (and 
consequently enhanced in value) by a greater charm of line, 
form and color. Our schools are producing our own design- 
ers of these products and freeing us from a foreign depend- 
ency. Our places of business, our shop windows, our adver- 
tising are today examples of real artistic expression. We are 
learning to express ourselves in our dress and make it more 
appropriate and generally charming. 

This growing desire for beauty is being expressed collec- 
tively in the improved city and township working for the best 
in town planning and civic beauty. Behold ! Art has not been 
lost — it is merely taking on new forms. It has been democ- 
ratized. We have at last obeyed Victor Hugo's injunction, 
" Away with Art for Art's sake., and give me Art for Human- 
ity's sake." 

Art has ever been found to be the basis for national wealth 
on the one hand, and true spiritual uplift on the other. The 
nations with tasteful skill have controlled the markets of the 
world. The man who can either produce or enjoy true works 
of art lives in the higher realms above the sordidness and vul- 
garity about him. 

453 



454 INTRODUCTION 

It is plain that our age requires and demands that all will 
love beauty and many will express it. The best place to in- 
culcate this love both for appreciation's sake and for expres- 
sion's sake is in the school room. Drawing and sketching, how- 
ever, have always been limited to objects that could be brought 
into or seen from the school room. This is especially true in 
cities and the field for such study has been very narrow. The 
stereograph has changed this. With the pupil's eyes in the 
stereoscope, the classroom shut out, the scene in proper per- 
spective, all forms correctly represented, outdoor sketching 
from nature becomes an indoor exercise possible in every 
schoolroom. 

The lantern slides offer even more attractive possibilities 
since the entire class is able to see the same view. With the 
latest Mazda lanterns a scene may be held on the screen 
without breaking the slides. Also this lantern can be used 
under daylight conditions with merely the window blinds 
drawn. 

These methods give the opportunity for careful study of 
nature which must be stimulating in its effect. They create 
an environment of unusual charm and rare opportunity ; they 
greatly enlarge the field of education in art. 

In order to contribute to these needs and facilitate this work, 
there has been assembled from our " 600 Set " of views the 
following group : 

1. Drawing — study of pictures to show elements of art. 

2. House Design and Decoration ; Costume Design. 

3. Photography. 

Also see classification Cities of the World. 

These give the opportunity for careful study of elements that 
must be stimulating in their effect, creating, as they do, an en- 
vironment of unusual charm and rare opportunity. 



39. DRAWING — STUDY OF STEREO- 
GRAPHS AND SLIDES TO SHOW 
ELEMENTS OF ART 

By HARRY W. JACOBS 

DIRECTOR ART INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. 

The following views have been selected to give classes in 
Drawing a practical view point in the subject of perspective 
and drawing in general. The views have been subdivided into 
sections with definite points of study, which will be of special 
interest to the student, classroom teacher and drawing super- 
visor. 

STUDY OF CIRCLE IN PERSPECTIVE 

14 Cotton mill — circles seen with axis vertical and at angle to picture 

plane. 
18 Woolen mill — circle seen with axis vertical and at an angle to 

picture plane. 
20 Paper mill — circles seen at an angle to the observer. 
23 Silk industry — showing convergence of circles in perspective. 
33 Dining table with plates in perspective below eye level. 
45 Revolving churn — an excellent example of circles seen obliquely. 
48 Erie canal — study of circle below the eye level in perspective. 

58 Firing tableware — showing circles with axis at various angles to 

picture plane. 

59 Artists decorating porcelain ware — circles with vertical axis at 

parallel to picture plane. 

65 Filling molds — circles in perspective above and below eye level. 
64 Pig iron machine — circles seen obliquely. 

66 Steel works — showing circles at an angle to picture plane. 
73 Cannon — showing circles at an angle to picture plane. 

80 Liberty Bell — circles above and below eye level. 
82 Baldwin Locomotive Works — showing axis of circles at angle to 
picture plane. 

87 Dome of Capitol — showing circle in perspective above eye level. 

88 The House of Representatives — the wide sweep of the seats 

showing the circle in perspective below the eye level. 
123 Oil tanks — circles seen below and on the eye level. 

455 



456 FINE ARTS — DRAWING 

124 Old wagons — showing axis of wheels at angle to observer. 

132 Automobile tire factory — showing axis of circles at angle to ob- 
server. 

153 Packing salt — axis of barrels are seen obliquely. 

162 Logs of various lengths seen obliquely. 

171 Large generators — showing circle in perspective below eye level. 

175 Barrels — showing axis of ellipses at angle to observer. 

180 Wheels on large tractor — show circle seen obliquely. 

203 Stamp mill — showing circle seen obliquely. 

241 San Gabriel Mission — bells above the eye level. 

286 Carding room — showing circles in perspective with axis seen 
obliquely. 

296 Turret of wrecked battleship Maine above level of eye. 

320 Old cart and gig — wheels at angle to picture plane. 

332 Preparing soil — showing circles at angle to observer. 

378 Large heavy cart wheels — seen at angle to observer. 

396 Quaint cart — with wheels at angle to observer. 

412 Norway — circular blocks of wood showing circles seen at many 
angles to observer. 

452 Coliseum — showing circle seen above and below eye level. 

454 Naples — carts with axis of wheels at angle to observer. 

484 Bell market, Russia — bells of various sizes seen below the eye 
level. 

493 Damascus — circular shaped roofs in perspective below eye level. 

498 Palestine — circular shaped vessels in perspective below eye level. 

502 The Taj Mahal — showing circle in perspective above the eye 
level — eye level very pronounced. 

530 Basket and Japanese hat in perspective above eye level. 

563 Large spinning wheels seen at an angle to picture plane. 

PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE 

Subjects Parallel to the Picture Plane 

6 Old North Church — a convincing illustration of dominant sur- 
faces parallel to the picture plane. 
9 Longfellow's home — path leading to the home a good example 

of parallel perspective. 
11 Shoe factory — the long benches offering excellent example of 

parallel perspective. 
14 Cotton mill — long lines of textile machines vanishing at one 
noint on eye level. 

24 Silk industry — showing all lines leading to one vanishing point. 

25 From Woolworth Tower — tall buildings below the eye level. 

29 Wall Street — showing dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 

30 Broadway, N. Y. — dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 

42 Salt works — excellent example of parallel perspective. 

43 Railroad tracks with cars and surrounding landscape give a good 

example of parallel perspective. 
63 Pig iron machine — a very pronounced example of parallel per- 
spective. 



ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE 457 

79 Shipping coal — large coal cars leading to good interest point. 

91 Portico of White House an example of parallel perspective. 
128 Ore docks — most interesting example of parallel perspective. 
133 Racks holding boots parallel to the picture plane. 

139 State Street, Chicago — dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 

149 Long rows of celery converging to one vanishing point. 

167 Dominant surface in street scene parallel tG picture plane. 

174 Dominant surface of Eads Bridge parallel to picture plane. , 

237 Orange groves — showing retreating lines parallel to the picture 
plane, vanishing to one point on the eye level. 

286 Carding room — a pronounced example of parallel perspective. 

331 Showing narrow street — dominant surfaces parallel to picture 
plane. 

336 Street in Ecuador — example of parallel perspective. 

340 Large buildings — converging to one point in eye level. 

352 Illustration of dominant surfaces parallel to picture plane. 

381 Belfast, Ireland — illustration of dominant surfaces parallel to 
picture plane. 

402 Picturesque Holland street scene in parallel perspective. 

460 Innsbruck, Austria — showing dominant surfaces parallel to pic- 
ture plane. 

500 An excellent example of parallel perspective. 

502 Walk leading to the Taj Mahal — a good example of parallel 
perspective. 

573 Mombasa, Africa — an old street in parallel perspective. 

ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE 

Subjects at an Angle to the Picture Plane 

7 Showing Faneuil Hall and market wagons in angular perspective. 

8 Old State House, Boston — an excellent example of angular per- 

spective. 
19 Large boxes below eye level and at angle to picture plane. 

27 Brooklyn Bridge and surroundings — an example of angular 

perspective. 

28 Tall and low buildings above and below the eye level. 

33 House interior — showing examples of angular perspective. 

34 Trays of loaf sugar — showing many small cubes in angular per- 

spective. 

37 Washington's headquarters — an out-of-door illustration of angu- 
lar perspective. 

87 The Capitol — combining the circle seen in perspective with angu- 
lar perspective. 

89 Showing chairs and tables with lines of room at angle to picture 
plane. 

92 Cabinet room with furnishings at an angle to picture plane. 

95 Congressional Library — an example of angular perspective. 

96 Washington's old home — an example of angular perspective above 

eye level. 
109 The picturesque old slave market in angular perspective. 



458 FINE ARTS — DRAWING 

113 Abraham Lincoln's cabin — a good example of angular perspective. 

116 Angular perspective showing cars and steel furnaces in back- 
ground. 

124 Wagons at cotton gin in angular perspective. 

157 Loading copper — an example of angular perspective. 

170 Great power dam and houses in foreground in angular perspective. 

176 Many tall and narrow buildings illustrating angular perspective. 

£14 A group of houses below the eye level in angular perspective. 

241 The old Mission Wall — an example of angular perspective. 

281 Home of the peon — illustrating angular perspective. 

305 Dominant surfaces at an angle to picture plane. 

310 Old house in Brazil — example of angular perspective. 

320 Old cart with house in background in angular perspective. 

354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare — example of angular per- 

spective. 

355 Anne Hathaway's cottage seen in angular perspective. 

365 Edinburgh — dominant surfaces at angle to picture plane. 
368 Wallace Monument — illustration of angular perspective above 
and below eye level. 

372 Burns' cottage — an interesting interior in angular perspective. 

373 A picturesque old Highland home showing angular perspective. 
376 Blarney Castle — fine example of angular perspective. 

425 Notre Dame — leading lines of building and foreground an excel- 
lent example of angular perspective above and below eye level. 

429 The Cathedral, Marseilles — many examples of angular perspective. 

461 Public square — dominant surfaces at angle to picture plane. 

463 Castle above and village below eye level — surfaces showing angu- 
lar perspective. 

473 Constantinople — many interesting examples of angular perspec- 
tive. 

524 An old gateway in angular perspective. 

533 Japanese bed — an interesting interior in angular perspective. 

536 Silkworm incubator — an excellent example of angular perspec- 
tive. 

557 An old gate illustrating angular perspective. 

POSTER DRAWING 
The following views may be used in poster work. They show good 
mass arrangement and may be well arranged in drawing and with let- 
tering applied as needed to be used as a commercial advertisement. 
This selection of views is particularly adapted to classes in commercial 
poster work. 

6 Old North Church — material for a travel or historic poster. 

7 Boston, Mass. — material for a travel poster. 

8 Old State House, Boston — a historic poster or post card. 

9 Longfellow's home — an excellent example of simple masses for 

a historic poster. 
27 The great Brooklyn Bridge — a strong example of a large mass 
with interesting surroundings. 



SKETCHES FROM PHOTOGRAPHS 459 

28 Old and new city halls, New York City — material for the de- 

velopment of a post card or poster. 

29 Wall Street — a good example of material for a travel poster. 

30 Up Broadway — poster for New York City. 

37 Newbtirgh on the Hudson — material for a travel poster — strong 

contrasts shown. 
42 Mouth of Erie canal — material for an industrial poster. 
174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis — a poster advertising a city or railroad — 

showing strong contrasts. 
195 Rocky Mountain divide — material for a travel poster or book 

cover advertising Yellowstone Park. 
241 San Gabriel Mission — excellent material for a travel poster or 

post card. 
276 Mt. Sir Donald — shows strong contrast for poster work. 
335 Famous Copacabana church, Bolivia — an excellent travel poster. 
425 Notre Dame — large masses with interesting surroundings for 

poster work. 
460 Maria Theresa Platz, Innsbruck, Austria — interesting background 

with large masses in foreground giving excellent material. 

PENCIL, PEN OR CHARCOAL SKETCHES FROM PHOTO- 
GRAPHS TO DEVELOP TECHNIQUE 
The student should select a print and make a drawing of it, using 
any of the above mentioned mediums. All sketches should be thor- 
oughly thought out, having eye level and vanishing points located. 
This drawing should be followed by completing in light and shade a 
similar drawing, using one of the mediums mentioned. 

6 Old North Church — showing an excellent center of interest in 

sunlight — shadows in foreground. 

7 Quincy Market — excellent illustrations of mass arrangement. 

8 Old State House — a good example for pencil technique. 

9 Longfellow's home — showing strong contrasts of light and dark. 

27 Brooklyn Bridge — a good example for pen, charcoal or pencil. 

28 New York City — showing strong mass arrangements. 

29 Wall Street — an example for pen, charcoal or pencil. 

30 Up Broadway — broad masses are well illustrated in this picture. 
37 Washington's headquarters — a good subject for pencil or pen. 
48 Month of Erie canal — a subject for pencil technique. 

109 Old slave market — an excellent example for pen and ink or pencil 

rendering. 
174 Eads Bridge — good subject for charcoal drawing. 
241 San Gabriel Mission — shows broad mass arrangement. 
281 Home of peon — excellent example for pen and ink or pencil 

drawing. 
320 The high cart and gig — a subject for pencil drawing. 
354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare — material for pencil or pen 

and ink rendering. 

372 Burns' cottage — an excellent pencil interior. 

373 Highland home — good example of contrasts for pencil handling. 



460 FINE ARTS — DRAWING 

376 Blarney Castle — good example for pencil or charcoal mediums. 
402 Quaint Holland street — excellent pencil subject. 
425 Notre Dame — subject gives strong contrasting masses for char- 
coal. 

461 Gratz, Austria — showing many examples for pencil drawing,. 
473 Constantinople — excellent material for many pencil sketches. 

Nature 
The following views may be used as suggestions for design motifs 
and for nature drawing. For a more extensive list of subjects see 
Nature Study group. 

238 Orange blossoms and fruit; 235 Spineless cactus; 236 Tokay 
grapes ; 249 Palm trees. 

Trees and Landscapes 
38 Exceptional view — rolling hills, Hudson River Valley. 

70 Trees in foreground with mass of trees in background. 
463 Trees singly and in masses. 

71 Elm trees — shown in mass. 
95 Trees below the eye level. 

192 Trees stripped of their foliage. 
259 Papaya and palm trees in Mauna Loa Valley. 
362 Low shrubbery and excellent tree masses. 
376 Trees beautifying the center of interest. 
10 Old elms; 73 Trees on hilltop; 173 Trees in fall; 195, 591 Pine 
trees ; 229 Monarch of trees ; 234 Almond trees ; 566, 564, 574 
Palm trees ; 359 Various leaf forms ; 444, 534 Trees in blossom ; 
586 Eucalyptus trees ; 399 Trees along canal. 
Figures in Action 

98 Indians in costume in pantomime act. 

99 Life saving corps in action — excellent examples of various run- 

ning positions. 

107 An excellent example of figure bending forward. 
186 The tight rope shows that the horse is pulling back. 

115 Mining phosphate — a good example of how angular lines denote 

action. 
117 Figures in various positions picking cotton. 

108 Harvesting pineapples — farm hands in various action positions. 
168 "Brought forth food" — excellent pose for Indian drawing. 

258 Cutting sugcfr cane — figures showing excellent action. 

290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls in national costume. 

295 Figures loading coffee — strong in action. 

366 Highlanders at great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 

105 Hoeing rice; 130 Tapping sugar maple; 147 Loading oats; 152 
Walking; 153 Shoveling; 158 Indians in action; 169 Indians in 
canoe; 263 Indians weaving baskets; 224 Felling tree; 266 
Troops marching; 292 Making bread; 516 Hauling roller; 523 
Sawing timbers: 528 Planting rice; 529 Harvesting rice; 550 
Hulling rice; 551 Husking coconuts; 552, 570 Stripping trees; 
565 Egyptian figures on camel. 



BOATS — SHIPS — ANIMALS 461 

Boats — Ships 

26 Ferry boat ; 27 Sailing vessel ; 48 Lake boats ; 52 Ocean liners ; 
100 United States war ships; 106 Schooners; 119 River boats; 154 
Canal boats; 253 Large transport vessels: 254 U. S. S. Missouri; 280 
Vessels in port; 313 Dredge; 415 Whale boat; 430 Small craft; 511 
Native boats ; 525 Japanese boats. 

Animals 

72 Woodcock; 110 Alligator; 232 Bison; 565 Camel; 140 Cattle in 
stockyards; 159, 165 Holstein cattle; 185, 358 Hereford cattle; 339 Cow 
and calf; 356 Cows in profile; 364 Jersey cattle; 370 Aberdeen Angus 
cattle ; 371 Cow — side view ; 403 Milking cows ; 454 Horse and ox team ; 
510, 548 Humped cattle; 127, 186, 301, 317 Range cattle; 246 Dog team; 
396 Belgian dog; 340 Donkey in action; 505, 509, 510 Elephants; 189 
Elk; 136, 147, 198 Teams of horses; 494 Saddle horses; 138, 398 Excel- 
lent horses ; 188 Bronco with cowboy ; 182 Horses in action ; 588 Kan- 
garoos; 335 Llama; 2 Moose; 239 Ostriches; 345 Seal; 173, 190, 480, 
589 Sheep. 

Indian Costume 
The following views may be used in Indian illustrations and the 
study of Indian costumes. 

98 Pocahontas pleading for life of John Smith. 
158 " Nursed the Little Hiawatha." 

168 " Brought forth food and set before them." 

169 " From the wigwam he departed." 

182 Mounted Sioux Indians in " full feather " leaving camp. 

204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. 

263 Indian basket weaving, Prince Edward Island, Canada. 

265 Iroquois Indians, Quebec, Can. 

328 Indians on the Straits of Magellan, Chile. 

211 Indians of New Mexico. 
See also classification on Costume Design. 



40. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION; 
COSTUME DESIGN 

By MARY J. QUINN 

SUPERVISOR OF DESIGN, PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 

I. HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 

No child can be taught anything more important than the 
art of home making and it is easier to have a good home where 
the house is beautiful to the eye and arranged in the most con- 
venient manner. Too many women work in houses so ar- 
ranged that to do the necessary things takes all the time and 
energy, leaving none or very little for self -improvement. 

So houses should be studied and children should be taught 
to judge what is best in a given circumstance. 

So, too, in furniture and clothes. If children look at these 
from the standpoint of beauty and use, if they see the differ- 
ences of time and nationality, surely they will acquire broader 
and better ideas and will no longer slavishly follow a prevail- 
ing fashion. A little start in such matters nearly always leads 
to great development. A large part of the crudities in build- 
ings, in furniture and in dress come from real ignorance in- 
stead of essential lack of taste. 

HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 
96, 298 Home is the place where the family life centers, the heart 

of a civilization. 
10, 373, 535 But in its construction, its living arrangements, and in 
appearance it differs according to the climate, the environment, 
and the habits of life. 
126, 249, 255, 306 For instance, in semitropical countries it is neces- 
sary to build for protection from the sun and the heat. There 
are wide piazzas, roofed porticoes, as in Italy and parts of 
South America. 

462 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 463 

9, 354, 355, 372, 373, 411 In colder countries, the house is closely 
built to protect from the cold. There are chimneys and open 
fireplaces, and well built windows to catch sunlight, as in 
Northern Europe and America. 
442, 445, 447 In mountain countries, as in Switzerland, where snows 
are heavy, the roofs are slanting to shed the snows, and firmly 
constructed with reinforcements to withstand the winds, which 
sweep through the valleys. 
492, 499, 558 In warm climates, the roofs are more frequently flat. 
1, 9, 10, 124, 236, 418 In countries wheie there are great forests, 
wood is used for building material. 
29, 90, 349, 425, 565, 568 In countries with marble and stone quarries, 

stone construction is common. 
336, 337, 341 Stucco is used in warm climates. 

281, 292, 339, 550 The habits of living influence the construction and 

arrangement of houses. 

282, 493 In southern countries where people live out of doors during 

many months of the year, the houses are dark, cool places used 
mostly for dining and sleeping quarters. 
33 In northern countries, where most life is spent indoors, attention 
is given to the comfortable arrangement of the interiors. 

549, 550, 554 Among primitive peoples, the houses furnish only the 

bare necessity of protection from the weather. 
91, 384, 432, 476 In rich countries with courts of great wealth and 
splendor of living, the palaces represent the wealth, power and 
taste of the ruling classes. 
9, 10 In New England, the austere habits of life are reflected in 
the fine simple proportions and arrangements of the colonial 
architecture. 

533 In Japan, where habits of life are prescribed by artistic sim- 
plicity, the houses are beautifully clear of bric-a-brac and un- 
necessary furnishings. 
25, 30, 61, 139 In great modern cities where people are crowded in 
a small area, tall buildings, apartment houses and tenements 
are the result of the high cost of land and the need to live 
within the city area. 
28, 385, 422 In countries with modern standards of civilization, sani- 
tation makes for clean streets and orderly arrangements of 
living. 

454,455,474,487,491,555 In older and less progressive communities, 
these matters are neglected — to the detriment of health and 
comfort of the people. 

372 Before fireplaces were built, there was an open fire in the center 
of the great hall or living room, with an opening in the roof 
for the escape of smoke. Later the great fireplaces were the 
only means of heating the houses. There are many stories of 
the hiding and escape of prisoners through the large chim- 
neys. 
9, 10, 96 In the 18th century, much attention was given to architec- 



464 FINE ARTS 

tural details of houses. Beautiful doorways and windows were 
built and the inside woodwork and the mantels were often of 
elegant design. Our colonial houses in New England and the 
South are examples of this period in America. 
33 It was not until the 18th century that the many rooms of the 
house as we now know it were built. Drawing rooms, living 
rooms, bedrooms, dining rooms and kitchen were included in the 
plan of the house. With the decline of taste in the 19th cen- 
tury all sorts of architectural monstrosities were built. Houses 
with two or three kinds of roof constructions and windows, and 
with towers and ugly porches decorated with fret work, were 
built. 

But for the past ten or fifteen years, a new era of domestic 
architecture has replaced the ugly houses of 1870-'80-'90 with 
well arranged and well proportioned types of houses which have 
some claim to beauty. 
37, 96 Simple forms are always better in domestic architecture than 
are elaborate and overdecorated styles. A house should be built 
to conform with its surroundings. 
354 The gabled roof with casement windows require much decorative 
planting of trees and shrubs to make them, a part of their sur- 
roundings. 
10, 96 The houses of Colonial type and those with simple vertical and 
horizontal lines are likely to prove more beautiful and livable 
than more varied styles. 

Fortunately today, much attention is paid to the sanitation 
and the economic arrangement of rooms. A large kitchen, for 
instance, is a waste of space in the average house. It wastes 
the energy of the person who is to work in it. The limited 
space in apartment houses of large cities requires a very eco- 
nomic arrangement of rooms. 

This is the golden era of the home. The architect who builds 
it, the artist who decorates it, and the homemaker who decides 
what is necessary and useful, all bring to bear the essential 
points of view to make a beautiful and practical home. 
373, 409, 443 Peasant furniture all over the world is similar in type. 
Crude strong construction and simple lines characterize it. 
92, 417 The furniture of palaces and homes of the wealthy is more 
elaborate, often heavily carved, and gilded, representing the 
finest workmanship of the time. 
292, 533 In tropical and eastern countries where people live out-of- 
doors, there are only the necessary pieces of furniture made 
simple or elegant according to the class of the people. 
33 In Western Europe and America where people live more indoors, 
many more pieces of furniture to fit the needs of modern living 
are used. 

During the middle and latter part of the 18th century, often 
called the Victorian period, the decline in taste was reflected 
in the furnishings of the homes. The furniture was usually 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 465 

ornate, the wall papers and carpets overdecorated, and useless 
bric-a-brac and elaborate lace curtains and draperies were 
used. The reaction from this period of bad taste began with 
the introduction of the simple sturdy designs of Mission furni- 
ture. The result of study in interior decoration and the appli- 
cation of art to furnishing shows results in the fine taste that 
is being exercised in house furnishing. The influence of the 
simplicity and art of the Japanese in their houses has also had 
an effect in making us realize the beauty of empty spaces and 
fine arrangements. 
33, 92 In planning the furnishing of a house, the needs of each room 
should be carefully considered. The furniture should be 
selected with reference to its use, its good proportions and lines, 
and placed so that there is a balanced arrangement in the room. 
The furnishings throughout a house should be similar in type. 
A color scheme including very few variations will always be 
more restful and effective than a great variety of inharmonious 
colors. The spacing and arrangement of the furniture and of 
pictures, if carefully considered, will avoid the effect of dis- 
order which comes from overcrowding. 

African (Central) 

572 These buildings were constructed by the European commercial 

agents. The natives live in huts built of poles and branches 
with roofs of grasses and branches. 

573 Arabian influence is shown in the barred window gratings and 

high balconies. 
575 Portable houses are built which can be packed and shipped in 
sections for European agents living in Africa. 

Australian Modern 

587, 590 The buildings in Australian cities are similar to those of 
Great Britain. 

Austria 

460 In all European cities apartments are built over the shops. The 

shutters are hung to protect from the sun without closing out 
the air. 

461 Steep sloping roofs with dormer windows show German Gothic 

influence. 

462 This shows the regular apartment houses of modern European 

cities. 

Asia Minor 

493 Houses in the Orient have few windows in order to keep the 
interiors as cool as possible. The semicircular archways over 
the streets are built to protect from the hot sun. 

497 Small windows are common in houses in hot climates. 

498 The interiors of these houses are as primitive as the exteriors ; 

usually earth or clay floors with mats to sit on — the Oriental 



466 FIXE ARTS 

seldom uses a chair. The simple food is eaten from large 
bowls. 

Ceylon 

512 In all oriental countries the houses are dark and simply furnished. 
The family works and lives out-of-doors all day. Very few of 
the poorer houses have chairs or tables. Mats are laid on the 
earthen floors for beds and a board or a bench serves as a 
table. 

Houses of China 

In China, as in Japan, the architecture of the houses, palaces and 
temples has a uniformity never found in western countries. The houses 
are usually built around a court. They have green, yellow or brown 
tile roofs which slant concavely and turn up at the corners. The 
roofs are supported by wooden pillars which stand on stone founda- 
tions. The beams and cross beams and under the eaves are richly 
carved and decorated in color and gold. As one enters from the street 
to the court, the living apartments are on either side and at the end 
of the court. If the family is rich, there may be a series of courts and 
wings of apartments with several roofs or double roofs. Over doors 
and windows are open panels of rich carving. The floors are of clay 
or brick. 

The Chinese sleep on mats with a square piece of hard woodwork 
lacquer for a pillow. Unlike other Asiatic peoples, the Chinese use 
chairs, and tables straight in line, of ebony, redwood or bamboo, some- 
times decorated with geometric openwork carving. They use two long 
pointed sticks called chopsticks instead of knives and forks. The 
Chinese make beautiful lacquer chests and cabinets. Carved stands in 
which are placed flowering plants or dwarfed trees or shrubs are placed 
against the walls. 

On the walls are hung long scrolls of paintings or printed quotations 
from their books of wisdom. Chinese paintings are very beautiful in 
their exquisite drawing and composition of color. 

The Chinese have made beautiful porcelains for hundreds of years. 
The European porcelains of the 18th century — Meissen (or Dresden), 
English and French — were made as a result of the importations from 
China. 

In the crowded cities of southern China, the people live huddled 
on boats placed as closely together as city tenements and nowhere in 
the world are living conditions worse than among the poorer Chinese 
in their crowded cities. 

Chinese 

513 These city buildings show European and American influence. 

Only the wealthier classes of Chinese merchants and the visit- 
ing foreigners have their offices here or live in these quarters. 
The open balconies are comfortable during the hot season. 

514 Millions of Chinese live in houseboats. 

517 The bright colored tile and the lifted corners of the roofs give 
Chinese villages a picturesque appearance. 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 467 

520 Over doorways and in halls and over windows, the Chinese place 

carved and gilded panels. Instead of window glass, paper is 
used for keeping out the air, but admitting the light. These 
little children have to sit on very straight chairs or benches. 

521 Beautiful designs of carved wood used as decoration over doors 

and under roofs and cornices. 

Chosen (Korea) 

542 The winter snow covers the thatched roofs of these plaster or 
stone native cottages. Inside there is one large room with an 
earthen floor. 

Denmark 

404 Steep roofs and dormer windows are of Gothic type. 
406 City apartments in Copenhagen like those of other European 
cities. 

Dutch 

402 The interiors of these Dutch homes have a charm in their orderly 
simple furniture and their arrangement of the brass and copper 
cooking utensils. The Dutch like gay color and paint the doors 
and windows bright blue or green. With the red geraniums in 
the window boxes and the bright colored dresses of the girls, 
the blue trousers of the fishermen, they present a gay appearance. 

400 In all European cities, people live over the shops, one floor being 
used by each family. 

401,399 Dutch streets are always gay. Indoors there is a large living 
room with a fireplace for cooking and a few small rooms 
adjoining and one or two sleeping rooms upstairs. The furni- 
ture, tables, chairs and benches are of simple straight design. 
The beds are closet beds built in the walls with curtains drawn 
across in front. The Anti-Tuberculosis Society is trying to 
abolish this type of bed. A Dutch kitchen has copper pots and 
pans, pewter ware, and blue and white china ranged in regular 
and picturesque order on racks along the wall. 

Egypt 

558 Alexandria is now a modern city. The houses of the wealthy and 
the hotels are like European houses. The poorer classes of 
natives live in adobe huts of one or two rooms and sleep on 
earthen floors. 

English 

Half-timbered and plaster houses with steep gables and casement 

windows with small leaded glass panes. 

354 The walls of these 17th century houses were made of heavy tim- 
bers crudely hand-hewn from logs and fastened together by 
joints and wooden pegs. Between the timbers, the spaces were 
filled with plaster, which made both inside and outside walls. 
The windows had very small panes of glass leaded together, for 



468 FINE ARTS 

glass was both expensive and rare and was not made in large 
sheets as today. The furniture was of oak with turned legs, 
strongly put together with joinery and wooden pegs. 

355 Elizabethan cottage with thatched roof, half-timbered and 
plaster walls and small casement windows. It was heated en- 
tirely by open fires and simple straight oak furniture was used. 
The roofs were thatched with rye straw tied to cross rafters in 
bunches and laid on row over row like shingles. It is very 
picturesque but inflammable. 

360 This shows a few houses with gabled roofs and small casement 
windows of merrie England. 

362 Picturesque country house with casement windows, many chim- 
neys for open fires, vine-clad walls and a beautiful garden. 

French 

421, 422 In Paris, the apartment houses are beautiful and well kept. 
On the first floor lives the concierge, or caretaker, who admits 
all visitors and opens the doors at night for late comers. 
French interiors have always been beautifully furnished. 

423 The French houses of the last half of the 19th century were 
solidly built of brick or stone with mansard roofs. 

430 These lovely villas with their orderly architecture and well ar- 
ranged gardens are luxuriously furnished in the modern French 
style. 

French Canadian 

262 The comfortable clean farmhouses of Canadian French farmers 
have the picturesqueness of French rural cottages. 

Germany 

389 The old houses on this square have the steep roofs with dormer 

windows of medieval Gothic Germany and France. 
394 Modern German houses are well built and comfortable. 
391 A castle occupies the hill top. 

Greek 

475 Modern Greek houses are similar to those of any modern Italian 

city. 

476 This palace has the classical proportions of the Italian palaces. 

Indoors the great reception rooms, halls and living apartments 
are richly furnished in the European fashion. 

Greenland 

343 Houses in Greenland are primitive in their construction. The 
small windows are necessary in so cold a climate. 

India 

In all Oriental countries, little attention is given to the architecture 
or furnishing of the home. In India, the average house has few if any 
windows; these are barred to protect from thieves. The floors are of 
earth or clay. There is little furniture; the family usually sleeps and 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 469 

eats on the floor. In fact, it is only when sleeping or eating or during 

the rainy season, that they remain indoors. 

499 These European houses in India have the balconies which are a 
part of the domestic architecture of all hot climates. 

504 Note how few and how small the windows are. 

506 The crudeness of the interior of this house matches the primitive 
wood and stone construction of the outside. Living arrange- 
ments are very simple. 

Irish 

376 This feudal castle was built before scientific # household manage- 
ment was considered. The stairways were narrow and steep 
for protection against attack from an enemy. The windows 
were small and, in the 16th century, without glass. There were 
great halls used for living and dining room and sleeping 
apartments. 

378 As in all European cities, people live over the shops. 

379 The cottage at the left is built of stone with slate roof. The 

windows are small, due to the high cost of glass for window 
panes in the early part of the last century. There are two 
rooms downstairs with small bedrooms upstairs under the 
rafters. The cooking is done over a large fireplace in pots 
hung from metal hooks and cranes. Bread and meats are baked 
on hot stones in front of the fire. The large white house in the 
distance is a modern stone building of Elizabethan style of 
architecture. 

Italian 

450 The front view of two Italian palaces shows the regularly spaced 
windows and flat roofs of the Renaissance type of domestic 
architecture. These Italian palaces are furnished with elegance. 

454 The flat roofs and regularly spaced windows are typical of Italian 

city houses. 

455 The crowded tenements of Sicily are less sanitary than New 

York's Italian quarter, but the family laundry is quite as 
decorative. 

456 In Florence, the old palaces were of brick and stucco. They 

were spacious with massive furniture. 
459 All through Italy are houses of white stucco with colored tile 
roofs. They are picturesque with beautiful gardens and 
orchards of olive, orange, almond trees and palms. The rooms 
of these houses are spacious and comfortable. 

Houses of Japan 

Japanese houses are usually of one story with slate, tile or thatched 
roofs. They are built with permanent walls on only one or two sides. 
So that the houses may be entirely open to the gardens, thin walls or 
movable partitions are built to slide in grooves and so divide the space 
into rooms or close in the house. Many beautiful kinds of screens are 



470 FINE ARTS 

also used for partitions. The windows are covered with white rice 
paper instead of glass. Matting and grass woven mats are used on 
the floors. The Japanese never use chairs — they both sleep and eat 
on the floor. 

The beauty of the Japanese house lies in its simplicity. There are 
few pieces of furniture, no bric-a-brac and very carefully selected 
decorations. Only one vase with beautifully arranged flowers and one 
picture are shown at one time. This picture or vase of flowers is 
placed in a recess in the room called a tokonoma. A Japanese may own 
many vases and pictures but only one is used at a time. 

The bedding, pillows and their clothes are kept in cupboards or 
chests of drawers. 

The same study of beautiful arrangements of form and color is shown 
in the Japanese gardens. In all their arts, they avoid bisymmetrical 
arrangements and their gardens are composed with little streams and 
waterfalls, rocks, shrubs and dwarfed trees and many kinds of beautiful 
flowering plants. 

526 There is a uniformity among all the Japanese houses, which is not 
found in a western city. 

533 This shows the paper window panes of a Japanese house. 

534 Even the fence is beautiful in design. The furniture of the tea 

house is of course European, for what Japanese lady ever sat in 
a chair to drink tea ! 

535 The entire side of this house can be opened to the garden by re- 

moving the paper window screens and awnings. 
540 The bamboo reeds do not make an effective curtain at this 
Japanese window. 

Mexican 

290 The houses of the poorer classes in Mexico were small huts made 
of adobe with only one doorway and one or two small windows. 

New Guinea 

592 These houses are made of matting with roof of coarse thatch. 
They are dry and airy. 

Norway 

409 This picture shows the primitive wood construction of the Scan- 
dinavian farmhouse. 

411 This shows the crude timber construction of Scandinavian country 
homes. 

Panama 

249 What American civilization has done for Panama is seen in these 

well built comfortable houses. 
255 As in all warm climates, wide porches and piazzas make the houses 

comfortable. 

Philippines 

546 We cannot imagine very elaborate housekeeping on these boats. 

547 Manila. The flat roofs, arched windows and shaded piazzas are 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 471 

like other Spanish stucco buildings, which are planned for warm 
climates. The United States has introduced sanitary plumbing. 

549 The houses are built on poles with a ladder or notched trees to 

climb to the entrance. They are high from the dampness and 
safe from attack. The sides are sometimes covered with mat- 
ting as are also the floors. The housekeeping is very simple — 
cooking is done outside on a brush fire. 

550 Primitive house construction — lower part like a stockade of 

woven timbers, the roof roughly thatched with native grasses. 
553 Primitive building — note space between roof and walls for cool- 
ness and ventilation. 

Poland 

485 Houses in this picture are similar to the houses of all modern 
European cities. They are Renaissance in type, with large 
spacious rooms inside. 

Cuba and Porto Rico 

299 These small adobe houses with their tile roofs so like a Spanish 
city are primitive in their living arrangements. One or two 
rooms, with few windows and doors house large families. 

257 The flat roofed houses in Porto Rico with regular arrangement of 
windows are Renaissance in their origin, having been built by 
the early Spanish inhabitants. 

Scotch 

367 The castles of the feudal period in Great Britain were also fort- 

resses. They are spacious with great halls and sleeping apart- 
ments. 

368 These sturdy cottages with the smoke arising from the open fire- 

places have the attractive hedges and tiny gardens which are a 
part of all British country. 

372 The walls are of rough plaster. The fireplace is built with a 
raised shelf on either side on which to stand kettles and pots to 
keep warm. It is called hob grate. Bobby Burns may have 
heard his mother say " Stand the kettle on the hob." The cook- 
ing was done in pots suspended over the fire and baking was 
done either at the side or in front of the fireplace. The old chair 
has a split back and is early 18th century type. The sideboard 
or dresser on which stand the old blue and white plates and 
bowls is the earliest type of sideboard. It was used as early as 
Queen Elizabeth's time. It is called a Tudor dresser and was 
used all over the British Islands. The table is the simple cot- 
tage type of furniture. The furniture is probably of oak. 

'673 The straw-thatched stone cottages of Scottish peasants usually 
contained one large room with a fireplace where all cooking was 
done and a small bedroom. The furniture is of sturdy oak, 
with simple straight line designs, unvarnished and unpainted. 
There was seldom more furniture than a table, a dresser for 
china, a few chairs and a bed. 



472 FINE ARTS 

South American and Spanish Houses 

Spanish people have a love of beauty and color which expresses itself 
in their houses. Spanish houses are of stone or plaster and are built 
around a central patio or courtyard open to the sky. This courtyard 
is the center of the family life during the hot summer evenings. In 
wealthy homes, there is a pool and fountain, whose sprays give a wel- 
come coolness. The family receive and entertain their guests in the 
courtyard during the warm weather. On the second story, both over- 
looking the street, and within the court, are balconies where the mem- 
bers of the family may sit during the evening. 

Indoors, the plaster walls are painted blue, yellow, or other soft 
colors. The large rooms are simply furnished with massive walnut 
furniture usually heavily carved or inlaid. 

The living arrangements are rather primitive. The cooking is done 
in a large kitchen over charcoal fires, in glazed pots or bowls and 
copper or brass utensils. 

In many South American countries, the arrangements of the houses 
is very similar to those of Spain. 
304 Here the flat tiled roofs are like those of Italy' and Spain. 

306 The beautiful ironwork in the balcony shows the influence of 

Spanish domestic architecture. 

307 These white adobe plaster houses are more picturesque than com- 

fortable. 
310 The fence of closely placed poles, cut from trees, forms a barrier 

against small animals. It is used on country estates as a lattice 

against which to grow vines and hedges. The many windows 

in the house are necessary in this hot climate. 
312 Balconies and covered porticoes are a feature of the houses in 

Spanish South America. 
320 Modern brick construction with corrugated iron roof. 

336 Charming Spanish balconies. 

337 Spanish influence shows in the balconies and grills at the windows 

of South American houses. 

338 White plaster houses with red tile roofs show Spanish influence. 

339 In this warm climate the large number of open windows give light 

and air and the overhanging eaves give protection from the sun 
and rain. These windows would not be practical in a northern 
colder climate. The houses are covered with stucco. The grill 
work shows the Moorish influence on Spanish architecture. 
434,436 The houses in Spain are strongly built of brick and stone 
often covered with stucco, with colored tile roofs. As in other 
European cities, they are built directly on the street, with over- 
hanging balconies on the upper floors, where the family sits in 
(he cool evenings. Indoors the houses are dark and cool in 
summer and heated only by a charcoal brazier in the short win- 
ter. The rooms are large and in the better class of homes the 
furniture is massive and elaborately carved and decorated in 
gold and color. The hangings and upholstery materials are of 
rich silks and velvets. The sanitary arrangements of a Spanish 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 473 

house are usually primitive and there is more beauty than 
comfort. 
341 The iron grill work on the windows is similar to that used in 
Spanish houses and shows Moorish influence. Like in old Euro- 
pean cities, the houses are built directly on the narrow streets. 

Swedish 

417 The great armchair at the head of the table and the sofas and 

side chairs against the walls are good examples of the French 
Louis XV period of the 18th century, with their curved legs, 
broad comfortable seats and backs upholstered in damask silk 
or velvets. These chairs and sofas of carved and gilded wood 
were probably imported from France. The side chairs along 
the table show the extravagant puffing in upholstery of the Vic- 
torian period. The walls and ceilings and doors are carved 
and paneled. The paneling of the walls and over the door 
encloses great tapestries woven in the 18th century. The great 
candelabra of cut crystal is also French, similar to those used 
in the French palaces in the 18th century. 

418 In Sweden, the great forests furnish the rough timber of which the 

farmhouses are built. Inside, there is a great living room 
extending to the roof, with a fireplace for cooking, and on either 
side are sleeping apartments. The walls are of rough plaster 
hung with woven tapestries of geometric design. The furniture 
is crude, of simple straight lines, often decorated with carving. 

Swiss Modern 

427 Everywhere the modern concrete construction is replacing the 
older types of dwellings. 

441 No house could afford more cheer to the cold mountain traveler 

than the warm comfort in these modern mountain hotels. 

442 Steep Gothic roofs with dormer casement windows. 

443 Plaster walls and simple peasant furniture. 

444 Through the valleys of the Alps, small timber cottages are built 

in which herdsmen may spend the night when off on far pastures 
in charge of cattle. The heavy stones on the wide roof help to 
secure it against the wind. 

445 The Swiss mountaineer's chalet has wide eaves and slanting roof 

to protect from winter storms and summer sun. The balconies 
which hang shaded by the eaves are decorated with carving. 
Frequently the first floor is used for cellars and stable. 
447 The overhanging roofs protect from the winter snows and the hot 
summer sun. The first story is often of stone, the upper struc- 
ture of wood. 



474 FINE ARTS 

United States 

American Indian nouses 

The houses of American Indians varied according to tribe ana dis- 
tricts. The Pueblo houses of the Southwest are solidly constructed, 01 
srone and adobe. They had several stories built on top of each otner 
rike steps. Most of the tribes built long narrow rectangular nouses or 
cimber framework covered with bark, skins and blankets with a door 
at each end of the house. On each side of the central passage, tne 
space inside was divided into stalls by partitions of skins. Each stall 
was occupied by a family. In the central passage were series or open 
nearths where the cooking was done. Many of the tribes had different 
nouses for summer and winter. 

After the white men brought horses to the Indians, tiiey Degan to 
rollow the buffalo and the game and to move about mucn more tnan 
nefore. They invented the tent now used among many Indian tribes. 
The framework of poles tied together at the top and spread to make 
a circle at the bottom is covered with buffalo and other animal skins 
sewed and laced together and pegged down tight at sides. The smoke 
nole at the top has a flap which adjusts the drafts for the fires. These 
tents are pitched in a circle and the horses are tethered inside at night. 
Z63 This very crude tent is made of animal skins not even seweo or 

fastened together. 
Z65 Indian tents were usually made of skins. This is made ot neavy 

cotton tent material. 
Zll Indians in the southwest lived in pueblos. 

Log Cabin (United States) 
113 The one story log cabin of the pioneers in the Middle West snow 
their perseverance and rugged character. The logs were laid 
one on another alternately and the chinks filled in with earth or 
plaster. There was a brick chimney at one end. Window glass 
was too scarce to allow of many windows. 

Colonial Houses and Furniture 

The New England States, New York, and Pennsylvania and the 
South had colonial houses and furniture of which they may well be 
proud. 

The earliest New England houses were built of wood, with wide clap- 
boards and steep gable roofs. The windows were regularly spaced on 
either side and above a central doorway. The doorways were espe- 
cially fine in proportion and detail of classic decoration. They were 
frequently made with classic columns, and with panels of glass over 
and at either side of the door. The windows had small panes, for 
glass was expensive in the early days. 

In the South, the houses were larger and more pretentious than in 
New England. The main central part of the house had a wide piazza 
with white classic columns. Wings with several rooms were built on 
either side. The slaves lived in small houses away from the main 
house. 



HOUSE DESIGN AND DECORATION 475 

The kitchen was a large sunny room. In the earliest houses, the 
cooking was done over the fireplace in pots suspended from cranes and 
hooks, around which a spacious brick oven was built for baking. Later 
the stoves were used instead of fireplaces. 

Candles and wicks in whale oil were used for lighting until late in 
the 19th century when kerosene lamps were invented. Cotton prints 
and chintz imported from England made attractive curtains for windows 
and four-poster beds. 

The women wove rag rugs and sewed braided rags into round rugs. 
They also made attractive rugs by pulling colored strips of cotton and 
wool cloths through burlap into patterns of stripes and flowers. These 
are called hooked rugs. 

All over the country the beauty and value of colonial furniture has 
been realized and museums and private collectors are gathering the 
now rare and fine pieces of colonial furniture. In all the Eastern States 
patriotic societies are establishing museums of historic old houses with 
the furniture of the colonial period. 
6 The tenement district has invaded the old residential quarters of 
Boston, and houses which fifty years ago were fine homes are 
now rented by floors and rooms to the crowded foreign popu- 
lation. 
10 All through old Massachusetts towns are these wide shaded streets 
and fine colonial houses. The small panes of glass were quite 
expensive and larger panes were not even made. Inside the 
dignified front door, the rooms were arranged on either side of 
a central hall. A stairway with delicate spindles and mahogany 
handrails curved up to the second story where the bedrooms 
were arranged. Old maple and mahogany furniture, chairs, 
sofas, highboy and lowboy bureaus, and tables were placed in an 
orderly fashion inside these houses. On the floors were woven 
rag carpets or sewed or hooked rugs. Plain white cloth, 
cotton prints or chintz were used for curtains. 
33 This beautiful old Brooklyn house was built by a retired sea cap- 
tain in the latter part of the 18th century. The rooms have the 
fine white mantels and paneled woodwork at doors and windows. 
The furniture all of old colonials represents many periods. In 
the living room is a rare Chippendale mahogany armchair. Over 
the mantel and between the windows are two colonial gold mir- 
rors. The long narrow one has a landscape painted on glass in 
the panel above the mirror. In the dining room, the empire 
mahogany dining table is surrounded by chairs of Sheraton 
design. Against the wall near the door is a fiddle-back walnut 
chair of the Dutch colonial period. On the Sheraton side table 
stands a Japanese tea tray decorated with a stenciled gold design 
and a silver teapot and salt shakers made in 1790. The tall 
pewter teapot and the old cut crystal goblets and the blue and 
white china date back to 1800. The rooms are furnished in dull 
blue and gold. The curtains hang in straight folds to the end 
of the window trim. 



476 • FINE ARTS 

37 This stone Dutch colonial house has the small window panes and 
long sloping roofs of the early cottages. 

90,91 A beautiful example of classic colonial architecture. The in- 
terior has been redecorated in the original style. 

92 The beautiful mantel of Adam classical design and the cornice 
and finely paneled door with glass knob are fine examples of 
colonial interior design. The furniture, while entirely modern, 
has a simplicity and elegance and fitness not always found in 
our public buildings. 

96 The Southern colonial mansions were less austere than those of 
New England. The two story portico supported by classical 
columns was a feature of southern houses of the 18th century. 
Frequently there was a small balcony from the second story 
• windows. Many southern houses had wings or porches on each 
side of the main central building. Mt. Vernon is one of the 
most beautiful houses in America, one of which all Americans 
may be proud. It compares favorably with the fine houses in 
the Old World. 

Modem Houses (United States) 

212, 213 Everywhere in the large American cities, apartment houses 
are simplifying the cost and labor in housekeeping. 

214 In mining towns all over the United States, the houses are crudely 
built and lack the beauty of little villages in Europe. 

147, 181, 236 It can no longer be said that the farmer houses his cattle 
and horses better than his family, for the modern American 
farmhouse is well built and well arranged, with telephone service 
and, in some districts, electric lights. 

236 Modern farmhouse with gambrel Dutch colonial roof. In southern 
California, the hot water supply is often furnished from a tank 
on the roof where the water supply is left open and heated by 
the sun. 



II. COSTUME DESIGN 

The clothes of the people reveal their civilization. They 
express the manners, the habits of living, the workmanship, 
the art of the people. The materials used represent the local 
products and the wealth. They often bear a relation to the 
religion. In many countries they have local costumes which 
repeat the life of past generations. The women in medieval 
times wore high caps and other headdresses from the back of 
which were long flowing veils. The modern peasant head- 
dress shows this medieval influence. 



COSTUME DESIGN 477 

With the development of courts and manners the costumes 
of both men and women become more complex and elaborate. 
In colonial days in America, the fashions followed those of 
France and England. George and Martha Washington 
dressed as the gentlemen and ladies of their time in England 
and France. In the 19th century, the knee breeches developed 
into the long trousers worn by the men of today. Women's 
costumes, however, have gone through many transitions of 
fashion since then. Taste in clothes has improved and much 
attention is being given to the designing of practical and beau- 
tiful dress. 

In these days of rapid and easy communication, varieties of 
clothing are disappearing. In almost every country will be 
found people dressed in the formal clothing which we are 
used to seeing and native costumes are gradually being dis- 
placed. This proves how very adaptable such clothing is. 
Made of light material, loosely fitted, it is suited to the warm- 
est climates ; made of heavier material, it can be worn even 
in the coldest regions. 

A. MODERN COSTUMES 

Modern Dress 

8, 22, 29, 235, 273, 275 These people of the United States and Canada 

are dressed in the same manner. 
60 The sweaters and trunks of the short skirted bathing suits of 
women are worn at every American bathing beach. 
276 The shirt waist is an American article of dress and has never 

become so popular in Europe as in America. 
249 The United States has shown the natives how to dress. 

257 The white costumes of the native may not be as clean as they 

look but they are cool and comfortable. 

258 These laborers are dressed like the negro workers in the Southern 

States. 

280 The Mexican always wears a large brimmed felt or woven straw 

hat. 

281 The poor natives of Mexico dress in primitive garments for pro- 

tection from the heat and sun. 

290 More purely Spanish costumes would only be found in a Spanish 
village. The wide sombrero hats of the Mexican are woven of 
grasses with bright colored straws for decoration. The hand- 
woven Indian blankets of bright colors are more for decoration 
than warmth. 

292 These cotton print dresses have been adapted to the needs of the 
hot climate. 



478 FINE ARTS 

284, 285 The Mexicans make baskets and hats of the native straws. 
Wide brimmed hats are worn in all the semitropical coun- 
tries. 

295 Cuban native workmen wear simple, rough cotton clothes similar 
to those of the American rural negro of the South. 

297 One of the men wears a Mexican sombrero. 

319 They pay as much attention to their dress as does their brother in 
sunny Italy. 

355, 365, 375, 404, 423, 424, 438, 443, 464, 486 In Europe in both warm 
and cold countries this same style of dress prevails. 

541 In China and Japan, Western dress has become common. 

557, 581, 582 Africa feels the influence of Europeans in the matter 
of dress. 

585, 590 Australians dress as the English do. 

324 Like in all Latin countries, the peasant women go about the streets 
without hats. Usually a black veil or scarf is worn on dress 
occasions, for it is forbidden to go into a church with uncovered 
heads. The long cape ahd shawl are frequently worn both by 
men and women. 

328 Very primitive costumes of skins crudely fastened together and 
blankets are worn over heavy wool skirts. 

331 The pattern and cloth in the costumes show the high develop- 
ment of textile design and weaving of the Inca Indians, the pre- 
historic tribes of Peru. The blankets worn as shawls are in 
Spanish fashions. The hats are also Spanish in style. 

338, 339 The natives' costumes show the influence of the old Euro- 
pean civilization which has been here for centuries. 

340 The European clothes of men. The boys in comfortable white 
trousers and bare feet. 

485 The men are wearing hats and caps of exactly the same styles as 
those offered for sale. 



Modern Working Clothes 

11 The making of shoes has reached the highest perfection in the 

United States. " American shoes " are the best. 
15, 40 The modern factory girl is tidy in her dress. 
42, 75, 130, 227 High rubber boots protect from the wet. 
44 American overalls and hat protect clothing while at work. 
46, 57 Health laws have made dairy men observe sanitary rules in 

dress. 
105, 117 Negroes in the South dress like their poorer white brothers. 
142, 143 Pure food laws require sanitary dress, therefore absolute 
cleanliness marks the working costumes of men in the packing 
houses. 
72.7 Chinese workmen of the Pacific Coast have adopted American 
clothes. 



COSTUME DESIGN 479 

243 The warm clothing of the trappers and miners of Alaska is a 

necessary protection during the long winters. 
245 The net masks protect from mosquitoes which come after the 

melting of the snows. 
431 Modern European working women look very much as Americans 

do. 
481 The shawls which these women wear on the heads are also used 

as neckerchiefs. 

Children's Dress 

Children's clothes are much like those of their elders. Among Euro- 
pean peasants, children's dresses are elaborately made and decorated. 

The poor children of Oriental countries wear very little clothing or 

none at all. 
61, 187 Clothes of a typical American school boy. 

236 Children dressed comfortably for play. 

239 These little children hardly realize the miUinery use to which the 
ostrich feathers will be put by their elders. 

292 Little children in warm climates need very light clothing. 

290 The little Mexican children wear typical Spanish costumes very 
much like those of their elders. 

306 These children are dressed very much as American children. One 
little girl wears a dress of elaborate lace made by drawing 
threads and darning in patterns. 

336 The pretty white lace trimmed dress probably came from Paris. 

341 The clothing of these children is very like that of American or 
European children. 

413 A little Laplander is comfortable in clothes of reindeer skin. 

437 This Spanish boy is not dressed very differently from the com- 
mon American boy. 

465 The bright colored needlework of Galician women is shown in 
the school satchel carried by the girl. 

471 Picturesque peasant costumes. The short jacket of the boy is 
decorated with many buttons, and the skirts of both mother and 
child are decorated with characteristic embroidery. 

487 These Russian peasant girls have the bright colored needlework 
on their skirts and collars. 

498 The street garments of the Orient. The headdress is decorated 
with coins. 

520 The long coats and skirts of the Chinese children are very pic- 
turesque. Their slippers made of bright colored materials turn 
up at the toes for easy walking. 

522 This belt and coat of the Chinese boy is similar to the Russian 
peasant costume. 

530 A serviceable costume for walking and a rice straw hat which 

protects the complexion. Japanese are adepts in basket making. 

532 The Japanese wear sandals made of woven straw and fastened 

across the ankles with band of bright colored material. This 

picture shows the obi, sash, worn about the waist of the kimono. 



480 FINE ARTS 

534 Pretty cotton materials are worn in Japanese kimonos. The 
mothers carry the babies in a carrier strapped to their backs, 
not unlike that of American Indians. 

562 The turbans and simple flowing garments are comfortable attire 

for the hot climates. 

563 The Egyptian costume has not changed much in many centuries. 
402 Dutch children. Little girls wear tight waists, full skirts and 

close fitting caps. The boys have very wide bloomers. Both 
wear wooden shoes. 

Modern Military Uniforms 
Uniforms used to be decorated with gay colors. Now they are 

neutral in color and plain as possible in order that the wearers may 

be inconspicuous. 

146 The United States has long used inconspicuous uniforms of dark 
blue. This has given place to a still less conspicuous uniform of 
khaki. 

266, 366 The Highland costumes are very picturesque with plaited 
skirts made of the plaid of the clan. Each clan has a different 
plaid. These are the service coats of the costume made of fine 
broadcloth. The small caps date from Rob Roy. The great 
brushes worn suspended from the belts are reminders of the 
trophies of the hunt of older days. They are now used as 
purses. The fashion of light topped shoes and gaiters here 
worn is centuries old. 

293 A soldier of Nicaragua. 

476 The Royal Guards of the King's palace wear the fustanella or 
wide cotton kilt which was originally part of the Albanian peas- 
ant dress. 

Peasant Costume 
In rural districts and small cities and towns the peasant costumes 

have changed very little in centuries. Each province or district usually 

has some distinctive feature. The costumes are decorated with the 

characteristic needlework and handicraft of the community. 

262 The kerchief and cap headdress of the French Canadian girls sug- 
gests the costume of the Brittany fisher folk of France. The 
dress is of strong homespun wool for which there is a good 
market in American cities. 

373 These old peasants wore simple dresses of homespun wool and 
kerchief caps of linen. They made the materials, cleaning, card- 
ing, spinning and dyeing the wool and weaving the homespun ; 
and retting, bleaching, spinning, and weaving the flax into linen. 

375 The woolen shawl is convenient and warm. 

388 The costumes of these peasant women have not changed in gen- 
erations. It has the tight bodice and kerchief of the 18th cen- 
tury. The hats are similar to those worn by all mountain peo- 
ple of Central Europe. The wool skirts and heavy stockings 
are products of home industries. 



COSTUME DESIGN 481 

390 The costumes of these women working in the fields show the tidi- 
ness of the average German " hausfrau." 

393 The old women still wear the old peasant costumes with ker- 
chief used for headdress. The younger women have adopted 
modern costumes. 

396 The costumes of these girls which are made of thick woolen 
dresses and cotton print aprons are made to withstand wear and 
weather. The heavy shoes of coarse leather are first cousins to 
wooden sabots. 

401, 402 Dutch women wear wide skirts, tight bodices with necker- 
chiefs and beautiful white caps. The men wear wide bloomers 
and tight short jackets. 

409 The neat dress of Norwegian women showing in the jewelry of 

silver and gold the fine workmanship of the Scandinavian 
countries. 
411 The Scandinavian working girl's costume like other European 
dress. Peasant headdress on women. Goats' hair is woven 
into materials for dress. 

410 Hats are unknown among the poorer peasant women of Eu- 

rope. 

413 Skirts and warm belted coats of reindeer skin are necessary in this 
cold climate. 

418 Swedish women's costumes. The apron is woven of bright col- 
ored material. Many silver ornaments for fastening coats and 
belts are worn as well as merely ornamental rings, belts and 
necklaces. A Swedish peasant bride in the older times re- 
sembled a jeweler's shop window, so covered was she with 
silver ornaments. 

449 The mountaineers of Switzerland wear low brimmed hats to 
protect them from the hot rays of the sun which are reflected 
from the snow. They carry long poles to guide their footing 
in climbing. 

466 Throughout Bosnia many picturesque costumes with rich em- 
broideries and elaborate caps are still worn by the peasants. 

471 Picturesque peasant costumes. The short jacket of the boy is 
decorated with many buttons and the skirts of mother and child 
are decorated with characteristic embroidery. 

465 The bright colored needlework of Galician women is shown in 
the school satchel carried by the girl. 

468 The costume of Bulgarian peasant, with bright colored embroid- 

ery. 

469 The quilted coats and embroidered dress of these Bulgarian 

women show their needlework art. 
479, 480 The belted coat and long tight trousers of Greek peasants. 

The kerchief protects the head from the weather. 
485 Jewi?h peasant costumes, showing the long beards worn by the 

Jewish men since Biblical days. 
487 The skirts and collars of these girls' dresses show the native 

bright colored needlework of the Russian peasants. 



482 FINE ARTS 

488 The Russian peasant wears a blouse belted at the waist, high 
boots and in colder parts of Russia, a fur cap. 

496 The women peasants of Russia with their wide skirts and shawls 
show the drudgery of their lives. The caps and long belted 
coats of the men are more picturesque. 

544 Siberia. The high boots and long coats of Russia. 

II. ORIENTAL COSTUMES 

Arab Costumes 

Throughout Mohammedan countries in Northern Africa and Asia 
Minor, the costumes are somewhat similar. The sheiks and men of 
importance wear loose long robes, flowing white headdress of cotton 
and wool materials. They wear sandals or go barefoot. The poorer 
classes wear very little clothing — they are bare to the waist, wear 
one straight garment and huge turbans to protect their heads from the 
sun. 

494 The long belted garments and turbaned flowing headdress have 
been worn by Arab chiefs for centuries throughout Asia Minor 
and Northern Africa. 
555 The turbans and flowing headdress of the Arabs differ very little 
from those worn in the Orient. The modern European dress 
shows the difference in civilization between the Mohammedan 
and the Christian. 
566 The long flowing garments and turban of the Arab are more elab- 
orate than the simple straight garment of the Egyptian water 
boy or carrier. 

557 European influence shows in Tunis costumes. 

558 Turkish fez. 

Egyptian Costumes 

561 Egyptian peasant costumes have changed little since ancient days. 

562 The fez and loose white garments are typical of Mohammedan 

countries. 

564 The turban headdress is a protection from the sun. 

565 The turban and flowing garments of the Egyptian are frequently 

of white to protect from the strong sunlight. The trappings 
of the camels' saddles are elaborate and beautiful, of rugs and 
knotted fringes. 

566 The long flowing garments and turban of the Arab are more 

elaborate than the simple straight garment of the Egyptian 
water boy or carrier. 

567 Egyptian soldiers. 

Ceylon Costumes 

511 The turban is worn in tropical Asia. 

East Indian Costumes 

500 Loose flowing garments, long coats and turbans are worn by men 
in India. 



COSTUME DESIGN 483 

501 There is no fashionable bathing-suit for East Indian natives. 

503 The turban headdress of men and the long straight garments are 

characteristic of the costume of Mohammedan countries. 

504 This East Indian city shows a motley crowd, wearing the long 

cotton garments and turbans of the East. 

505 The long skirted garments of the East Indian natives are of cot- 

ton material sometimes decorated with colored embroidery. 

506 The East Indian man is never without his turban. The beautiful 

many colored shawls which they wove were fashionable in 
Queen Victoria's time. In Paisley, Scotland, machine copies of 
Indian shawls were made. 

Chinese Costumes 

The dress of the Chinese differs according to climate and the class 
of the people. 

The working people wear two loose garments of coarse deep blue 
cotton materials. In cold weather, the thin coat is replaced by a 
quilted and wadded one. The men wear their hair in a long straight 
braid called a cue. When working, this is sometimes bound about 
the head. In the fields, wide conical brimmed rice straw hats are worn 
for protection from the sun. On gala occasions silk garments are 
worn. Slippers of straw or cotton materials turned up at the toe are 
worn by both men and women. The poorest classes wear very little 
clothing. The men usually are naked to the waist and barefoot. 

In the coast cities, the Chinese are adopting European dress. The 
cue is slowly going out of fashion, in consequence of which great 
shipments of Chinese hair come into American markets for the manu- 
facture of false hair. 

516 Many of these coolies have dispensed with the cue. 

517 The Chinese coolie or workman wears simple garments of col ton 

materials. 

518 The quilted coats and warm clothes are necessary during cold 

weather. 

519 A variety of Chinese costumes. 

521 The Chinese were very proud of iheir long braided cues of 

hair. They are now adopting the hair cut of the American 
* and European. 

522 The Chinese primitive costume. 

531 One of these kimonos shows the tying of the obi at the waist. 
543 White costumes are usually worn in semi-tropical climates. Kor- 
ean (Chosen) costumes are similar to the Chinese. 

Japanese Costumes 

Japanese women wear three or four straight kimono-like garments 
one over the other. At the open folds of the loose sleeves the different 
colors of the garments may be seen. The obi, or wide sash, is the most 
important part of the Japanese woman's dress. Some are richly em- 
broidered on silk or the very costly ones are of cloth of gold. 

The Japanese wife and mother never wears bright colors nor adorns 



484 FINE ARTS 

her hair. The geisha girls wear bright flowers in their hair and lovely 
bright colored kimonos. A woman's age can be told by the colors she 
wears. The same colors are worn at certain ages by all women. 

The Japanese men wear loose trousers and straight rather short 
kimonos, belted at the waist. The field laborers wear loose blouse-like 
garments belted at the waist and wide conical shaped straw hats. 

Both men and women wear short light stockings and sandals or 
slippers. They carry gay parasols when out walking. 

American and European clothes are being adopted in the large cities. 

528 Adaptation of Japanese costumes for working in the water of the 

rice fields. 
527, 529 The great hats which protect the workers from the sun in the 

rice fields are made of rice straw. 
530 A serviceable costume for walking, and a rice straw hat which 

protects the complexion. Japanese are adepts in basket making. 

532 The Japanese wear sandals made of woven straw and fastened 

across the ankle with bands of bright colored material. This 
picture shows the obi sash worn about the waist of the kimonos. 

533 The elaborate headdress of Japanese women is not disturbed when 

they sleep. 

534 Pretty cotton materials are worn in the Japanese kimonos. The 

mothers carry the babies in a carrier strapped to their backs not 
unlike that of American Indians. 

535 Beautifully embroidered kimonos are worn by wealthy Japanese 

girls. On one of these kimonos is shown the obi. Miniature 
gardens artfully planned, with waterfalls, shrubs, trees and 
flowering plants, are one of the great artistic achievements of 
the Japanese. 

536 The costumes of this Japanese man and woman differ very little. 

The silk from these silkworms will be woven into beautiful 
materials and probably sold in America. Since the great Euro- 
pean war, much of our silk has come from Japan. 

537 Light trousers and long shirts with wide belts are made of cotton 

materials. The conical shaped hat is made of rice straw and is 
worn in the fields for protection from the sun. 
536 The kimono of the Japanese factory girl's costume differs very 
little in cut from the costumes of her wealthier sisters. 

540 Beautifully designed Japanese crepe in kimono. See Silk Industry. 

541 Japanese factories have become Americanized even to costumes. 

Note shirt waists of girls and business tailored suits of men. 

Hawaiian Costumes 

260 American influence shows in the clothes of the younger genera- 

tion. 

261 The dancing girls of Honolulu usually wear skirts of coconut 

fiber, but these have adopted the European materials. Their 
decorations of flower wreaths swing rhythmically as they dance. 



COSTUME DESIGN 485 

III. PRIMITIVE COSTUMES 

Very primitive tribes in tropical and semi-tropical countries wore few 
garments and those were simple in construction and design. Primi- 
tive people in colder climates wore garments made of the skins of ani- 
mals. Americans or Europeans who go to the polar regions adopt the 
native dress, partially at least. 

African Native Costumes 

The dark skinned natives of central Africa are still savages, and 
their costumes consist of very little covering. In many tribes the na- 
tives painted their bodies for ceremonial occasions. 

The men wear a loin cloth. In some tribes, the women wear skirts 
of leaves or vegetable fibres. Bright colored beads and crude jewelry 
are worn in some tribes. 

Missionaries tell amusing stories of the African interest in European 
dress. At one celebration of a local chief, the men wore the dis- 
carded hats and brims of hats of European travelers, with their native 
costumes. 
572 The semicivilized and savage tribes wear very few clothes. A 

loin cloth wrapped about their bodies suffices. 
570, 573 These native Africans have lived near the great European 
commercial posts on the west coast, and are more clothed 
than their less civilized brothers of the interior. 
578 The natives' dress is most primitive, consisting of only a loin 
cloth. Their uncovered heads bear the intense heat of the trop- 
ical sun. 
581 The dress of the white man and the negro shows the difference in 
civilization in South Africa. 

New Guinea Island Costumes 
592 The most primitive savages wear a loin cloth of woven cotton 
material. The women are wearing skirts made of dried grass. 
Frequently they have elaborate headdresses and ornaments of 
bone or ivory in the nose or upper lip. 
Philippine Costumes 
543, 546 White clothes are usually worn in semitropical climates. 

548 The wide hats of the men are of Spanish origin. 

549 Primitive Philippino costumes. 

550 These costumes show European influence. 

551, 552 This Philippino native wears clothes for comfort. 
553 Manila native qpstumes vary according to the tribe. Character- 
istic dress of semicivilized natives. 

Arctic Costumes 
246 Arctic men with fur boots and caps, worn fur inside. 
279 Sealskin clothes and cap are worn with the fur inside. 

Antarctic Costumes 
328 These Indians have never reached a degree of civilization where 
beauty has become a real feature of dress. 



486 FINE ARTS 

American Indian Costumes 

The dress of the different tribes of American Indians varied with the 
degree of civilization and with their ceremonial customs. The cos- 
tumes were usually made of the cleaned and dressed skins of animals. 
The costumes of Indian men consisted of several garments. In all 
tribes, the men wore breechclouts of skin or cloth fastened between 
the legs and brought up and held by a belt which fastened in front 
with long decorated ends. Over this were worn buckskin leggings 
fringed on the outer sides and a jacket or shirt of buckskin often 
reaching to the knees. This was decorated with beads, feathers or 
painting. Over the shoulders was worn a long woven blanket. The 
war headdress consisted of a crown or band of upright feathers and 
fastened to this a long strip of cloth to which eagle feathers were 
attached. This headdress was supposed to protect the wearer from 
the arrows of the enemy. 

Both men and women wore moccasins of soft skins which were 
elaborately decorated with beads. 

' The Indian women wore buckskin trousers, short skirts reaching 
to the knees and short bright colored jackets. They wore their hair 
parted in the center and either braided in two long braids or bound 
loosely with decorated headbands. 

Both men and women wore silver ornaments, necklaces, beads and 
bracelets. The men's necklaces were made of elk teeth and badger 
claws, representing trophies of the hunt. 

In many Indian tribes, American dress, has been adopted. 
98 The fringes and bead-work decoration are more elaborate than 

in the average everyday costume of the Indian. 
158 Little papoose in his warm handwoven blanket admires the lovely 
bead-work and leather trimmings of his mother's dress. How 
pretty is this Indian mother's beaded headband and fringed 
skirt and sleeves, and how patiently she dyed and wove the 
bright colored blanket for her papoose. 

168 The beaded and feather headdress of the Indian maiden and the 

elaborate skin costumes of the men are ceremonial in their 
elaborate decoration. 

169 With their silver necklaces and bracelets and elaborate dress, 

these Indians are on peaceful mission. 
182 The elaborate feather headdress of Indian men. The costumes 

as well as the horses' bridles were decorated with bright colored 

beadwork. 
204 This Indian has accepted the white man's dress. His wife wears 

her hair braided in two plaits and near the woven Indian blanket 

stands the board which she wears strapped to her back for 

carrying her papoose. 
244 These Indians have adopted American clothes. 
263 These Indians in their American clothes are working on their 

beautiful grass baskets for sale to the American tourists. 
265 Good examples of the elaborate decorative bead-work on Indian 

costumes. 



41. PHOTOGRAPHY 

By C. E. K. MEES, D.Sc. 

DIRECTOR RESEARCH LABORATORY, EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
ROCHESTER, N. Y. 

Since the " 600 Set " of Keystone stereographs and lantern 
slides are made by means of the camera, they naturally present 
an excellent series of examples for a study of the art of 
photography and especially for that part of the art which deals 
with the composition and arrangement of photographs. They 
can be used for the study of composition, scale of gradation, 
and perspective with great advantage, and suggestions are 
made here for the selection of scenes illustrating these various 
points. 

The study of composition by means of these photographs is 
particularly valuable, as few people realize the way in which 
pictures are built up or constructed. 

Then, again, we see photographs taken under various condi- 
tions with the objects at different distances from the camera, 
ranging from very close to very far-away photographs, in sun- 
light and shadow, and even under such unusual conditions as at 
the bottom of mines a mile under the earth, or photographing 
millions of miles through space. 

There are excellent interior photographs and architectural 
photographs in the " 600 Set " of stereographs and slides, but 
it is particularly when we deal with the applications of photog- 
raphy there shown that we realize the wide scope of the art of 
the camera. We have photography applied to industry, to 
farming, to surveying, to the recording of scenes in the moun- 
tains and in the tropics, to the recording of the habits and cos- 
tumes of mankind in many parts of the earth, and of the 
behavior and life of birds and animals, while, finally, the astron- 
omer uses the photographic plate as his chief tool and is able 
to contribute some wonderful records of the heavenly bodies. 

487 



488 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 



1. THE COMPOSITION OF A PHOTOGRAPH 

Composition is the art of placing the different objects in a picture 
so as to be pleasing to the eye and best tell the story. An essential 
to good composition is a point of central interest around which the 
picture is built up. It is usual to choose a point of interest and then 
to arrange the standpoint so that the lines of the picture are concen- 
trated on it and lead the eye up to it. 
6 Old North Church, Boston. The point of interest in this pic- 
ture is the church in the distance, and the convergence of the 
lines of the street lead the eye to the church so that the whole 
picture is built around it. Compare with 406, The Krystal-Gade 
and the Round Tower, Denmark ; 502, The Taj Mahal, India ; 
79 Shipping coal, Ashley, Pa. ; 463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia. 
70 Oil Field, Pennsylvania. Here again the lines of the trees and 
the very attitude of the people in the foreground all converge 
on the well, which is the center of interest in the picture. See 
also 448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland ; 300 Volcanic eruption, 
Martinique, F. W. I. ; 88 Congressional chamber, Washington, 
D. C. ; 98 Pocahontas pleading for the life of John Smith, James- 
town Exposition. 
186 Cowboy' and horse holding a lassoed cow, Kansas. The figures 
in the foreground make the center of interest. It should be 
noticed that the center of interest should not be exactly at 
the center of the picture but should be near it. The eye 
naturally follows the rope to the horse and the fact that the 
rope is stretched tight shows that the horse is pulling. The 
photographer has succeeded wonderfully in showing intense ac- 
tion. The group of cattle and the hills beyond furnish a back- 
ground of great depth. 
104 Flooding rice fields, South Carolina. If there is not a natural 
center of interest in the picture, it is sometimes possible to 
utilize casual objects to make a center of interest. Thus in this 
picture the black piles in the water combined with the water 
gate make a center of interest on which the composition of the 
photograph is built. See also 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa 
Rica, C. A. ; 229 Fallen monarch, Yosemite Valley, Cal. 
525 Sacred Mountain of Fuji-Yama, Japan. In this picture the boat 
with its white sail makes an excellent center point. Note center 
point in these: 575 Bridge over Zambezi River, Africa; 535 
Japanese garden. 
507 Ferryboats, India. Here the group of people in the foreground 
make an excellent center to the picture. Compare with 528 
Rice planters, Japan ; 549 Harrowing rice, Manila. 
443 Wood carver, Switzerland. In a portrait it is often an advantage 
to have the subject intent on something so that the eye is led 
by the gaze of the subject himself and by his attitude toward 
the center of interest. Compare with 538 Feeding mulberry 
leaves, Japan; 540 Reeling silk, Japan; 550 Hulling rice, Phil- 



COMPOSITION 489 

ippine Islands; S8S Review of troops, Sydney, N. S. W. ; 551 
Husking coconuts, Philippine Islands; 132 Building up auto- 
mobile tire, Akron, Ohio. 

171 Hydroelectric generators, Keokuk, la. In every landscape com- 
position we must have a general controlling shape correctly 
placed in the picture, and if a secondary controlling shape is 
present it must be in some way connected with the first. Per- 
haps the simplest composition for a photograph is that of con- 
verging lines, the center of interest being in the middle dis- 
tance or far distance and all the lines of the photograph 
converging to this, as was seen in stereograph or slide 6, Old 
North Church. There are many good examples of this in the 
set of photographs. See 322 Inca Lake; 399 Water Street, 
Zaandam, Holland; 270 Sugar beets, Montreal, Can.; 163 Burt 
mine, Minnesota; 149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo; 390 Pick- 
ing grapes, Germany. 

133 Rubber boots and shoes, Akron, Ohio; 286 Carding room of cot- 
ton mills, Mexico. These examples of interior scenes show 
this convergence. It should be noticed that care has been taken 
in these pictures that the center of interest is not in the middle 
of the picture, the standpoint being chosen so that the con- 
vergence of the two sides of the picture is not quite the same, 
thus giving a much more pleasing view than if a center view 
were chosen. Examples of the same composition occur in all 
kinds of scenes. See topic of Parallel Perspective in classifica- 
tion on Drawing. 
30 Broadway, New York; 139, State Street, Chicago; 167 Nicollet 
Ave., Minneapolis; 308 Rua 15th of November, Sao Paulo; 
331 Street in Cuzco, Peru. Street scenes with their straight 
lines lend themselves particularly to this kind of composition. 
See also 220 Second Street, Seattle, Wash.; 339 Street of La 
Guaira, Venezuela ; 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris ; 
513 "Queen's Road," Hongkong; 504 Spacious thoroughfare, 
Jaipur, India; 273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Can.; 336 Street 
Scene, Guayaquil, Ecuador. 

105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. In open air scenes a good exam- 
ple of this type of composition is found. 251 Excavations in 
Gaillard Cut, Panama, and 74 Stripping coal, Pennsylvania, show 
the use of railroad crossings to produce convergence lines. 
128 Unloading iron ore, Conneaut, Ohio. Railroad tracks and 
cars themselves used for lines converging upon the freight 
loader, which is the center of interest. 

347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. The edge of the landing stage 
has been used in the same way. 

129 Trainload of coal, Conneaut, Ohio. It shows a modification of 
this convergent composition, the convergent lines in this case 
being curved so that we get a long sweeping curve winch makes 
a very beautiful composition. 

404 Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. The same general 
scheme of composition. 



490 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 

430 Cannes, France. 304 City and harbor, Bahia, Brazil. Here it is 
present, though less clearly marked. 

489 Bosphorus, Turkey. A less usual form of controlling shape, this 
being an elliptical shape in the foreground. The theme is du- 
plicated in this slide, both the mound surrounded by trees and 
the sea in the distance taking the elliptical shape. 

316 Four o'clock parade, Palermo, Argentina. This elliptical figure 
again, with some tendency toward the converging curve. 

326 Harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. A shape frequently used in 
the composition of landscapes is the zigzag. The eye is first 
led to the right by the white road at the bottom and then again 
to the left. 

528 Rice planters, Japan ; 529 Rice harvest, Japan. The composition 
of these pictures is very greatly helped by the use of the zig- 
zag shape. The line of work-people would lead the eye out 
of the picture were it not for the break in the rice, which leads 
the eye back again. 210 Roosevelt Dam, is also an example 
of zigzag shape. 

369 Ellen's Isle, Scotland; 461 Public Square, Gratz, Austria; 200 
Phoebe's Arch, Colorado. Occasionally in landscapes great use 
can be made of the vista composition, that is, of a choice of posi- 
tion such that the picture appears to be framed within some 
natural objects close to the camera. This is particularly effec- 
tive in stereoscopic views. 

536 Silkworm incubator, Japan ; 561 Farm scene in Egypt ; 564 In- 
undation of the Nile, Egypt. In photographing groups it is im- 
portant to have some definite geometrical design in mind in 
arranging the group. Perhaps the safest design is a rough 
pyramid, thus, in 536 the bodies and heads of the two figures 
together with the man's hand leading the eye up to the ther- 
mometer make a roughly pyramidal shape. 

548 Cattle as pack animals, Island of Luzon. The group of animals 
and riders in the foreground duplicates in its lines the moun- 
tain in the background. 

498 Grinding wheat, Palestine. An excellent example of a perfectly 
posed group. The women, forming a pure pyramid and keep- 
ing intent on their work, make a very pleasing picture. 

2. LIGHT 

a. The Scale of Gradation 
Since the purpose of photography is to represent by the different 
tones of the print the relative brightnesses of the corresponding portions 
of the original scene, the most important thing in obtaining an accu- 
rate photograph is that the scale of gradation of the photograph shall 
correspond through all its tones to those of the original scene. This 
can be accomplished only by correct exposure and development of 
the negative and by printing upon a paper exactly suitable to the 
scale of the negative. Such a photograph, having a very accurate scale 



SCALE OF GRADATION 491 

of gradation, is said to be of technically good quality and is invariably 
pleasing to the eye. 

While all the stereographs and slides represent the scenes well, the 
following have been selected as showing a particularly excellent scale 
of gradation : 

18 Scene in a woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. Note the way in which 
the variation in brightness of the bobbins on the right as they 
recede into the distance is accurately reproduced. See also 14 
and 16 Scenes in a cotton mill ; 22 and 24 Scenes in a silk mill. 
SO Niagara Falls, N. Y. In this very beautiful scene all the fine 
gradation of the highlights is retained and produces the charm 
of the picture. 
70 Shooting oil well, Pennsylvania. In this view we have particu- 
larly accurate rendering of the middle tones. See also 83 School 
gardens, Philadelphia; 112 Tobacco field, Kentucky; 117 Pick- 
ing cotton, Mississippi; 138 Horses at work, Indiana; 176 
Zinc and lead mines, Missouri ; 180 Farm machinery, Nebraska ; 
359 Nightingale, England. 
74 Stripping coal, Pennsylvania. Note the retention of gradation 
and detail in the shadow in this picture. Any underexposure 
would have been fatal to this. 

192 Angel Terrace, Wyoming. This view is remarkable for the accu- 
rate rendering of the gradation of the high lights. See also 
196 A beaver dam, Yellowstone Park; 197 Grand Canyon of 
the Yellowstone National Park. 

543 Charcoal carriers, Chosen. This is a good example of portraiture 
in natural surroundings. The lighting of the face deserves 
study. 

200 Phoebe's Arch, Colorado. In spite of the extreme range of 
brightness occurring in this view, the distant hills and the dark 
rocks are retained in perfect gradation. See also 202 Box 
Canyon, Colorado; 235 Burbank and the spineless cactus, Santa 
Rosa, Cal. 

216 Port Blakely mills, Seattle, Wash. The gradation in this view is 
excellent throughout. Note that the highest light is not in the 
sky but in the near foreground. 

258 Cutting sugar cane, Porto Rico. Observe the gradation shown 
in the white shirts of the men. Compare with 290 Mexican 
musicians. 

291 Volcanoes, Gautemala, C. A. The accurate reproduction of the 
high light detail helps to give the sense of distance in this view. 
See also 274 Glacier, Canada. 

301 A cattle ranch, Jamaica. This is a good photograph of a rather 
easy subject. 

361 Lake District, England. Photographically considered, this is per- 
haps a most perfect reproduction. 



492 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 

408 Jordal Valley, Norway. Note the retention of gradation at the 
two extremes of the scale — in the water and snow, and in the 
dark hillside. See also 412 Paper mills, Skotifos, Norway; 419 
Field of sugar beets, Sweden; 444 Lauterbrunnen Valley, 
Switzerland. 

489 Looking up the Bosporus, Scutari, Asia. While there are no 
extreme contrasts in this view, any failure of gradation would 
have been fatal to its beauty. See also 506 Weaving woolen 
shawls, Srinagar, Kashmir. 

525 Fuji-Yama, Japan; 530 Tea fields, Shizuoka, Japan; 562 Thresh- 
ing beans, Egypt. The rendering of gradation is very good. 

575 Bridge over Zambezi River, Africa. The gradation in this scene 
from high light to shadow is particularly good. 

b. Flashlight Work 
Photography by artificial light is a very fascinating branch of the 
art and the use of burning magnesium powder, either in what are 
termed " flash cartridges " or " flash sheets " only requiring to be fas- 
tened up and lighted, makes it possible to obtain photographs under 
conditions which without this method would be quite impossible. 
2 Wild moose, Maine. This is a wonderful flash-light photograph 

of a wild animal at night. 
76 Coal mines, Scranton, Pa. Here the flash-light has been used to 
give us a picture of the miners actually getting coal from the 
mines. 
155 Calumet-Hecla Mines, Michigan. This photograph, taken a mile 

underground, is an excellent' example of flash-light work. 
579 Gold mine, South Africa. Here again, we have a picture in a gold 
mine showing what can be done by flash-light photography. 

3. PERSPECTIVE 
A lens photographs a scene exactly as the eye sees it from the same 
standpoint, and when a stereograph is examined the rigid correctness 
of photographic perspective is easily realized. The apparent falsity 
of perspective in some photographs is due to the fact that to get cor- 
rect perspective the eye should be at the same distance from the photo- 
graph as the lens was from the plate or film when the picture was 
taken. If a lens of very short focus was used, it would be difficult 
to view the picture from a sufficiently small distance and the perspective 
would appear incorrect. In the stereoscope, however, the viewing dis- 
tance corresponds to the lenses used in the camera and correct per- 
spective is realized. 

366 Great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. Note the strong 
perspective when this is viewed from a distance ; in the stereo- 
scope the perspective is seen to be correct. 
392 Bridge over river Rhine, Germany. Owing to the greater dis- 
tance of the bridge from the camera, the perspective in this 
view appears much less violent than that of 366. Compare with 
470 Bridge over the Danube River, Roumania ; 472 Galata 
Bridge, Constantinople, Turkey. 



STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 493 

34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar, New York; 171 Hydroelec- 
tric generators, Iowa; 270 Sugar beets stored in sheds, Mon- 
treal, Can. ; 139 State Street, Chicago. 

a. Depth of Field 

In many photographs some objects are close to the camera and others 
are very far away, and such objects at different distances from the 
camera can only be photographed to give an equal degree of sharpness 
by the use of a small aperture in the lens. 

1 Logs, Aroostook Co., Maine. Notice the sharpness of all the 
different objects at various distances from the camera. Such 
a view is said to have great depth of field. 
186 The cattle are almost as clear in outline as the figures in the 
foreground. 
See also 5 Chiseling marble, Proctor, Vt. ; 10 Lexington Common, 
Lexington, Mass. 

b. Rendering of Distance 
The obtaining of clear photographs of distant objects in a landscape 
is a matter of great difficulty if the atmosphere is at all hazy, as it 
usually is in northern latitudes. At the same time this haze in the dis- 
tance may be of value as giving a sense of distance which could not 
be obtained in a clearer view. 
51 Palisades of the Hudson River, New Jersey. Here one gets a 
strong sense of the distance of the opposite shore of the river, 
owing to haze. 
190 Sheep, Idaho; 237 Orange groves, California. In the sharp, clear 
air of this view, the distant hills show but little more mist than 
the rise in front of them. See also 228 The Sierras, California. 
288 " Old Popocatepetl," Mexico. Here in the clear air of the tropics 
we see the mountain at a great distance, clear-cut against the 
sky. 

4. STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 
A stereograph does not consist of two ordinary pictures but is a 
double picture taken by two lenses placed three inches apart so that they 
photograph two distinct images of the same subject from slightly differ- 
ent standpoints. The combination of these two images in the stereo- 
scope gives the appearance which would be seen by a person whose 
two eyes occupied the position of the two lenses of the camera when 
the stereograph was taken. This principle is well illustrated by com- 
paring the following stereographs with the corresponding views made 
by mounting side by side on one card two ordinary photographs taken 
from the same standpoint. 
231 Earthquake fissure, Berkeley, Cal. 

The same view without stereoscopic effect. 
303 Cacao tree, Dominica, B. W. I. 

The same view without stereoscopic effect. 
197 The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, Wyoming. 
The same view without stereoscopic effect. 



494 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 

5. SUBJECTS AND SCENES 
a. Unusual Subjects 
The following photographs are of interest owing to the unusual 
nature of the subject photographed; the hot metal must have presented 
photographic problems of no small difficulty. 
65 Steel mill, Pittsburgh, Pa. Note the halation from the intensely 

bright white-hot steel as it pours into the mold. 
67 Steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. The showers of sparks from the 

rolling mill make a most interesting stereograph. 
12 Woodcock. Such pictures are very difficult to get and are very 
rare. The protective coloring of birds is admirably shown. 
414 In this wonderful photograph of the midnight sun, an effect is 
seen which is common in photographs where bright lights, such 
as the sun, are included in the field of view. This is the reversal 
of the light source itself, the brightest portion of the sun being 
seen as a dark ring against the bright halo surrounding it. 
186 This picture shows action in a remarkable degree. 

b. Interiors 
In photographing interiors, the arrangement of the lighting is of the 

greatest importance if a harmonious picture is to be obtained. It is 

especially important that the lighting should be as even as possible. 
33 Dining room and living room. This is a good photograph of an 

interior. 
92 The Cabinet Room, Washington, D. C. Note the excellent light- 
ing in this photograph. 

372 Burns' cottage, Scotland. Here we have an interior in which the 
gradation throughout is good. In such a scene as this there is 
often great difficulty in avoiding underexposure in the side far- 
thest from the window. 

533 Japanese home. This interior is smoothly and well lighted, a 
pleasing effect being obtained. See also 14, 16 Cotton mills. 
Lawrence, Mass. ; 17 Woolen mill, Lawrence, Mass. ; 20 Paper 
mill, Holyoke, Mass.; 34 Sugar factory, New York; 53 Silk 
mills, Paterson, N. J.; 57 Modern dairy, Plainsboro, N. J.; 59 
Pottery, Trenton, N. J.; 65 Steel mill, Pittsburgh, Pa.; 132 
Rubber plant, Akron, Ohio ; 135 Plate glass works, Rossford, 
Ohio; 141 Packing house, Chicago; 151 Automobile plant, De- 
troit, Mich. ; 153 Packing salt, St. Clair, Mich. ; 171 Hydro- 
electric generators, Iowa; 268, 269 Linen mill, Canada; 353 
Regulator of the world's clocks, Greenwich, Eng. ; 412 Paper 
mills, Norway; 417 The council room, Royal Palace, Stockholm, 
Sweden; 536 Silkworm incubator, Japan; 541 Silk weaving plant, 
Japan. 

c. Architectural Photography 
Photography has been of great assistance to the architect and the 
photography of buildings is a fascinating branch of the art. The 



INDUSTRY — ENGINEERING 495 

" 600 Set " of stereographs and slides contains many excellent examples 

from which the following are selected : 

139 State Street, Chicago. The great height of the buildings makes 
this a difficult subject. 

425 Though by no means the most beautiful of the cathedrals of 
France, Notre Dame has an attraction of its own and makes a 
splendid subject for the photographer. The picture is so sharp 
that with a good lens the famous gargoyles can be made out. 

442 Lucerne, Switzerland. An unusual photograph of a well-known 
subject. 

458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy. This is an excellent example of Gothic 
architecture. 

483 Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. Note the domes so characteristic of 
Russian churches. 

502 Taj Mahal, India. This is generally regarded as the most per- 
fectly proportioned building in the world. 

524 Nankow Pass, China. Note how the inclusion of the caravan has 
given life and interest to this photograph. 

521 Store of Chinese tea merchant. Here again the peddler's display 
in the foreground is of great value pictorially. 

d. Photography Applied to the Factory 

150 Assembling room, automobile plant, Detroit, Michigan. Photog- 
raphy is much used for keeping records of the situation in a 
factory at various times, thus the photograph shown might be 
taken from the same standpoint at fixed intervals in order to 
keep the management informed as to the stock of machines in 
process in this room. 

152 Ford plant, Detroit, Mich. Factories often take photographs of 
their work people and plants for publication in the " house 
organ " or magazine to which such pictures lend interest. 
12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts. Engineers often make photographs 
of machines and workers ; these are frequently used for efficiency 
studies. 

e. Photography Applied to Engineering 

313 Great dredge, Montevideo, Uruguay. It is usual to photograph 

all such important pieces of engineering work as this dredge 

when they are completed by the maker. 
161 Digging ditch with tractor, Wisconsin ; 163 Steam shovel at work, 

Burt mine, Minnesota ; 210 Great Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. 

Contractors often make periodical photographs showing the 

nature of the work and the progress made. 
250, 251, 254 Photographs were taken regularly of the Panama Canal 

throughout its construction. 

f. Photography and the Farm 

It is doubtful whether farmers make as much use of photography 
as they might do ; certainly such records as the following would be 
of use for comparison from time to time. 



496 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 

47 Cantaloupes, near Buffalo, N. Y. This is well chosen to show 
the crop on the ground and yet the introduction of the wagon 
avoids the lack of interest likely to occur when photographing 
a flat field. 

136 Cutter and binder at work on Indiana farm. Such photographs as 
this give an excellent idea of the value of agricultural ma- 
chinery. 

149 Celery; 108 Pineapples. These are good photographs showing 
special crops. 

178 Plowing with tractor, South Dakota; 179 Tractor drawing har- 
rows, South Dakota; 332 Tractor drawing harrow and pulver- 
izer, Lima, Peru. Here we sec the use of various types of 
agricultural machines. 

185 Hereford cattle, Manhattan, Kan. This splendid photograph of 
stock suggests a regular use of photography for the purpose of 
making similar records. 

g. Photography Applied to Surveying and Map Making 

Photography is much used for record making and even accurate 
surveying, special cameras being used. Much of the Canadian survey 
work is done photographically. Photographic records from air craft 
have also been of great importance in war, photographs being taken 
daily showing alterations in the positions of defences and guns. 
394 Every Zeppelin air craft is fitted with specially designed photo- 
graphic apparatus. 
248 City of Panama; 25 New York; 435 Madrid, Spain; 361 Lake 
District, England; 93 Washington, D. C. ; 170 Keokuk Dam, 
Iowa; 422 Paris; 489 Bosporus. These show views suitable for 
the construction of maps. 

h. Alpine Scenery 

Alpine scenery with its high lights and deep shadows, and its great 

distances, gives many very interesting photographs. 

102 Blue Ridge Mountain scene. This is a remarkable photograph. 
The fruit tree and fence lead the eye to the center and give a 
suggestion of man and his work. The real interest, however, 
lies in the mountain tops and the valleys filled with clouds. 
A peculiar effect is the idea of unlimited extent which is con- 
veyed to you. 

219 Crevasse of Paradise Glacier, Washington. It is not altogether 
easy to get a good rendering of the tones in ice and snow such 
as is shown here. 

274 This photograph of the crevasse in Victoria Glacier is worthy of 
careful study. It is roughly pyramidal in shape with lines con- 
verging at the right. The mountain cuts the sky in a sharp 



SURVEYING AND MAP MAKING 497 

line. The center of interest is, of course, the icy wall in the 
foreground, its whiteness being in strong contrast to the stone 
covered surface of the glacier. The picture seems to show the 
texture of the ice and stone. v 

275 lllecillewaet Glacier, Canada ; 448 Switzerland. As we ascend 

to high levels, the sky becomes darker owing to its freedom 
from dust particles which reflect and scatter the sunlight until 
finally the sky appears dark instead of blue and the white 
clouds and ice peaks stand out strongly in contrast. 

276 Mt. Sir Donald, Canada. The lady in the immediate foreground 

adds a bit of life and human interest, but is only an acces- 
sory part of the picture. The rock wall with the wind swept 
clouds, the glaciers at the right and left sending down their 
foaming streams, these make the real picture. Notice how the 
lines tend to converge, and the angles are softened by the curves 
of the ice and streams. The lady above the tops of the slen- 
der pine trees gives a sense of depth seldom obtained in a pic- 
ture. 

427 Glacier, Chamonix, France. Here we have wonderful lighting 

effects. The glacier is, of course, the center of value, and yet 
so many of the lines converge at the point where the house 
stands that the eye is drawn toward the home. 

428 Mer de Glace, Chamonix, France. The notable things in this 

photograph are the sweeping lines, the lights and shadows. 
Such a figure as the stunted tree in the foreground emphasizes 
the bareness of snowy slopes. 

444 Lauterbrunnen Valley and the Falls of the Staubbach. This 
shows a fine scale of gradation. Against the grey walls of the 
narrow, shadowy valley, the mist of the falling water shines 
with dazzling whiteness. In the far background the walls open 
to show sunshine on the snowy mountain and the clouds. The 
daisies in the foreground and the shining water in the valley 
serve to bring out strong contrasts. 

446 Here is a very clever composition. The Alpine horn in the fore- 
ground excites our curiosity and the old man under the tree 
our sympathy. The eye, however, travels past the men to the 
rough surface of the glacier and to the mountains. There is 
a sharp contrast between the grassy slopes and trees in the 
foreground and the bare mountains farther on. Notice what 
graceful curves sweep toward the right and what depth is 
shown. 

449 In this mountain scene it will be noticed that there is no sky, 
the rising ground on the other side of the valley filling the 
picture. This is very characteristic of pictures taken in hilly 
country. 

508 The Himalayas, Northern India. In some respects this is the 
most wonderful picture in the " 600 Set." Notice first the light 
which, coming from the right, gives the glistening whiteness to 
mountain snows and clouds, in strong contrast to the deep 



498 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 

shadows. The mountains are roughly pyramidal with all lines 
running off the picture. We catch glimpses of peaks hidden 
by clouds both before and behind the mountains. The effect of 
the whole picture is an idea of illimitable space, of depth, and 
height and distance. We realize that what we see is only a 
little part of what really is. The leafless branch in the fore- 
ground suggests life and emphasizes distance. 

i. Tropical Scenes 

The lighting conditions characteristic of the tropics are the high, 
almost vertical, sun, the clear air, and the deep shadows unsoftened by 
the light scattered from the sky which modifies the shadows of the 
temperate zone. Since photographic exposures must be such as to re- 
cord the shadows, exposures in the tropics should be longer than 
would be judged from the brilliant sunlit portions of the scene, and, in- 
deed, they are generally not less than in temperate climates. 

259 Hawaii. Photographs of tropical gardens, while inviting because 
of the brilliancy of the scene, are apt to be disappointing owing 
to the absence of the vivid coloring which was so attractive 
in the original. 

301 Jamaica. Such scenes as this are common in Jamaica and make 

excellent and most interesting photographs. 
249 Panama. A very typical scene in the West Indies and Central 
America, a happy hunting ground for many tourists with their 
cameras. 

302 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. In this scene the scale of. 

gradation is very good. 

560 The Great Nile Bridge, Egypt. Notice the convergence of line. 
There is no deep shadow to form contrasts and the center of 
interest is in the immediate foreground. 

572 The native market, Central Africa. This picture should be com- 
pared with 560. Instead of the strongly converging lines, the 
eye begins at the front left-hand corner and travels back 
through a zigzag line till it reaches the water in the far back- 
ground. This view has great depth of field. 

300 Earthquake Fissure, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. Distance is well shown 
and the scale of gradation is very fine. 

288 The sacred shrine on Cholula Pyramid and "Old Popocatepetl," 
Mexico. 

291 Volcanoes, Guatemala, C. A. The clouds before the mountains 
emphasize the distance and the height. 

j. Natural History Photography 

Recently the camera has replaced the gun for many hunters, and 
instead of killing the wild birds and animals, photographs showing 
their appearance, natural surroundings, life and habits are made. 



RECORDING COSTUMES 499 

588 Kangaroo; 239 Ostriches. Even when animals are in captivity, 
interesting photographs can be made. 
2 Wild moose ; 196 A beaver dam ; 232 American bison. The most 
valuable results are obtained when the animals are living in 
their natural surroundings. 
72 Woodcock on nest; 359 A nightingale; 583 Gannets ; 584 Pen- 
guins. Good photographs of wild birds are difficult to ob- 
tain, often demanding much patience and skill on the part of 
the photographer; sometimes bird photographs are made by 
means of very, long focus, or " telephoto " lenses but many ex- 
cellent results are secured simply by the exercise of sufficient 
patience to remain motionless until the opportunity for exposure 
comes. 

539 Silkworm cocoons in their nests, Kiryu, Japan; 209 Desert vege- 
tation, Arizona ; 247 Rubber tree, Panama. When photograph- 
ing such subjects as these the same difficulties do not arise, 
but nevertheless good photographs of wild flowers or plants 
growing will often tax the skill and patience of the photog- 
rapher. 

k. Photography for Recording Costumes, Appearance and 
Habits of the Various Races of Mankind 

One of the most valuable applications of photography is to the re- 
cording of customs and clothing which soon pass away and would be 

forgotten but for the photographic records. 

98, 158, 168, 182, 204, 265 These records of the North American In- 
dian will be of value when his picturesque dress and interest- 
ing customs have long been only a memory of the past. 

205 Cliff dwellings, Colorado. Doubtless these relics of the aborigines 
of the country will be carefully preserved, but photographs 
enable knowledge of them to be spread to many who could 
never see the originals. 

328 Indians on Magellan Strait ; 343 Eskimo girls, Greenland. 
Everywhere records are being made of such isolated tribes as 
these. 

261 Hula girls, Hawaii ; 592 Papuans. The island people are fast los- 
ing their customs and becoming absorbed, so that these records 
are of value. 

418 Sweden. In western Europe the native costumes are still worn in 
some places, especially on festal occasions. 

402 Holland. Here we see at the same time children in their native 
dress and also in modern clothes. 

471 Roumania; 490 Circassians; 491 Tarsus, Asia Minor; 498 Pales- 
tine. As we go towards the East, we find the costumes and 
habits of the people preserved in their original form. 

478 Ruins of Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece; 507 Ferryboats, India; 
568 Ruins of Karnak, Egypt. These records of the relics of 
vanished civilizations are very impressive. Note how the pho- 
tograph brings out the vast size of the colossi in comparison 
with the men and animals at their feet. 

506 Srinagar, Kashmir; 507 India; 519 China; 530 Shizuoka, Japan; 



500 FINE ARTS — PHOTOGRAPHY 

543 Chosen. The East is full of interest for the photographer 
who finds new subjects at every turn. 

1. Astronomical Photography 

Photography is the handmaid of many sciences, but to no scientific 
worker is it of greater importance than to the astronomer ; indeed the 
modern astronomer very rarely observes the heavens with his eye — 
he almost always photographs instead, merely guiding the telescope bv 
visual observation. 
593 The sun naturally requires very short exposures and was the 

first heavenly object to be photographed. 
594, 595 The moon gives the most interesting photograph of any 
object in the sky and forms a splendid object for the stereo- 
scope. 

596 With the planet Mars it is still a matter of dispute as to whether 

the much discussed " canals " can be shown in a photograph. 

597 Saturn with its wonderful ring system makes a marvelous tele- 

scopic object and its appearance is well represented in this pho- 
tograph. 

598 The far-away planet Uranus with its moons gives us an idea of 

the vast size of the solar system. 

599 Meteors, or " shooting stars." This stereograph makes the near- 

ness of the meteor, in comparison with the starry background, 
very apparent. 

600 This wonderful picture of a comet, one of those strange wanderers 

which come to the sun, forms a marvelous stereoscopic object. 



FOR THE LITTLE FOLKS 

By WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

Concreteness is essential at all stages of the educative proc- 
ess, but it is especially important in the early grades of the 
elementary school. Here the emphasis in all subjects of in- 
struction must be upon the formation of clear, definite, and 
typical images as a basis for the more abstract concepts. These 
images should be based upon experiences — actually under- 
gone or vividly imagined — in a large number of situations 
typifying the most important phases of human life and the 
most significant natural phenomena which surround and con- 
dition human life. It is through insuring the effectiveness 
of the imagined experiences that the stereograph can be most 
profitably used in these lower grades. Even though the child's 
immediate environment may be narrowly circumscribed he 
may look through the stereoscope into a larger world, and a 
few well directed questions by the teacher will enable him to 
imagine how it would feel to be in this world, and how he 
would act if he were actually there. It is this actual transla- 
tion of one's self into the pictured situation that conditions 
the effective educational use of the stereoscopic views. If it 
is a mountain that is pictured, the child should imagine how 
it would feel to climb the mountain, clambering over the rocks, 
watching to avoid the crevices, and slowly toiling toward the 
summit. If he vividly images these conditions, he will have 
a basis for understanding later why mountain ranges are bar- 
riers to communication and travel, and the significance of hu- 
man ingenuity in constructing railroads over mountain passes 
and in piercing the ranges with tunnels. 

Or it may be a series of pictures that follow through the 
various stages of the lumber industry; he, too, must work 

Soi 



502 INTRODUCTION 

with the woodmen felling the trees; help them to saw the 
trunks into- logs, load them on the sledges, and haul them to 
the river ; follow the " drive " down the rapid stream to the 
mill, balancing himself with the other drivers on the rolling 
logs; watch the great saws as they slice the logs into lumber, 
and then help load the boards upon the tram cars to be carried 
to the drying piles in the yard. 

The imagination of little children is naturally most readily 
caught and stimulated by pictures dealing with the life and 
activities of children themselves. A most effective introduc- 
tion to the study of other countries, then, is through the child- 
life and the home-life of these countries. Again the problem 
is to get the child to put himself into the picture — to imagine 
himself playing or working with the other children and learn- 
ing in this way fundamental facts about the region that is be- 
ing studied, its climate and surface-features, its productions, 
occupations, and industries, and the social customs of the peo- 
ple. In View No. 292, for example, a primitive Central 
American home is pictured* If a child actually reads himself 
into this situation and imagines himself aiding in the work 
that the members of the family are doing, he will gain a 
vivid idea of the conditions of life in this region and of the 
many ways in which these differ from the conditions under 
which he lives. But there are certain resemblances, too ; food 
must be provided for the family and prepared for eating; 
there must be utensils for preparing the food and for keeping 
the home in a condition of reasonable comfort ; and the chil- 
dren, even in Central America, must help with the home work. 
It is through these points of similarity that the differences can 
be made clear and interesting and may come to form the basis 
of an understanding of the characteristic features of the 
region that is being studied and of its life and customs. 

This is only suggestive of what the stereograph may be 
made to do in stimulating the imagination and thus impelling 
the child to undergo the significant experiences which in their 
totality may well give him the essential basis of a clear con- 
ception of the world in which he lives. And this kind of in- 
struction may be carried on systematically (but with constant 
regard for the importance of concreteness and vividness) dur- 
ing the first four years of school life. 



42. CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

By G. A. MIRICK, A.M. 

LECTURER ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, HARVARD. FORMERLY 

ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, SUPERVISING 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, STATE OF NEW JERSEY 

Children are interested in children, but not very much in 
descriptions of them or in scientifically classified facts about 
them. They like to see children in action, doing the things 
that children naturally do. They also enjoy seeing grown 
people engaged in the common affairs of life. 

A skillful story teller can paint word-pictures that children 
appreciate, but the photograph is superior to most word-pic- 
tures, and the stereograph is the most lifelike of all photo- 
graphs for it is the only three dimension picture and seen 
through a stereoscope, each figure in a stereograph stands out 
in bold relief and exact size in relation to the other objects 
in the scene. The stereograph teaches concentration, it can 
be studied in detail and it gives the impression of solidity and 
of space, so that for young children, possibly for them even 
more than for adults, the stereograph has a value and an at- 
tractiveness all its own. 

After the pictures are thoughtfully selected from the point 
of view of the interests and mental capacities of the chil- 
dren who are to use them, a few only should be used in one 
lesson. As a rule, one is more useful than a larger number. 
If several pictures illustrating one topic are available, it will 
generally be more profitable to study two or three in sucr 
cessive lessons rather than to give a hasty, ill-considered glance 
at all, for it is the study of a picture that makes its use edu- 
cational, not the mere looking at it. 

The stereographs for this classification have been selected 
because of the clearness with which they picture their story ; 
but yet each picture illustrates a variety of topics. For ex- 
ample, in stereograph 550, there is the home with its side of 
bamboo poles and its thatched roof of dried grasses ; or one 
may study the girls, their color, features, hair, clothing; or 

503 



504 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

one may approach the picture with an interest in what the 
people are doing and the implements they are using. While 
a teacher may properly allow pupils to study a given picture 
for all of these things, yet, in general, it will be found more 
profitable to consider one element of a picture at a time, using 
several pictures that portray the same kind of facts. Each 
of these pictures may then be restudied in other lessons to 
learn other sets of facts that they illustrate. It requires some 
skill on the part of the teacher to keep the minds of " little 
folks " centered on one point of interest, but in proportion 
as she is successful in doing this, she will find her picture les- 
son educationally profitable to them. 

The stereographs that are here suggested for use in kinder- 
garten and primary grades are grouped by countries first. 
This is the First Series of Studies. This grouping shows, at 
a glance, the available material for illustrating any course of 
study that a teacher may be following. The analysis of each 
picture indicates, like a table of contents, what it teaches. 

But, because many schools follow a course of study in these 
lowest grades that is based on the family, school and com- 
munity life, a second grouping is made by topics. This is the 
Second Series of Studies. No attempt is made to give a com- 
plete list of the topics that may be illustrated by the stereo- 
graphs, but enough are given to show clearly their varied use- 
fulness in this kind of study. 

A third grouping has been made from the point of view of 
primitive life. This is the Third Series of Studies. 

FIRST SERIES OF STUDIES 

Stereographs and lantern slides grouped by countries. 

Throughout each of the three series of studies, there will 
be found under the various topical headings a considerable 
range of scenes showing children — at work, at school, at 
play. Likewise there is a good representation of the homes 
and home life in the various lands. 

UNITED STATES 
Children at Play 

60 Children at play by the seashore. Relates to summer sports, 
bathing, seabeach. 



FRUIT — VEGETABLES — GRAIN 505 

School Garden 

83 Children at work in a school garden. Relates to nature study, 
gardening, useful work children may do. 

Fruits 

175 In an apple orchard. Picking, sorting, and putting into barrels. 
236 Picking grapes in California. Vineyard; farmer's home and 

windmill. 
85 In a peach orchard. Picking peaches. 
47 In a field of cantaloupes. Vines and fruit ; picking and loading 

into a wagon. 
108 In a field of pineapples. Growing pineapples ; white and colored 
men picking them ; windmill pumping water into a water tank for 
irrigation. Note the thick gloves worn by the men. 

Vegetables 

137 In a field of pumpkins. Related to fall of the year. Pumpkins 
growing in a field of corn. Corn stacked to dry and harden. 
For field of corn, see 184. 

166 Digging potatoes. A large field in Minnesota. Digging by ma- 
chinery. Gathering into baskets. 

149 Celery. Blanching and harvesting; team of horses; dog; rich 
moist soil. 

375 A market where fresh vegetables may be bought. 

Grain 

184 Kansas cornfield. Stone wall ; corn stalks two and three times 
as tall as a man ; corn flowers. For corn stacked in a field, see 
137. 

218, 177 Wheat. 

147 Oats. Hauling from shocks ; team ; wagon ; home in distance. 

199 Barley. 

105 Rice. Negroes hoeing rice grown under irrigation. 

Nuts 

118 A crop of peanuts. Peanuts grow on the roots of vines as po- 
tatoes do. The picture shows in the background the vines 
stacked around a pole to dry. The pole is to keep the stack 
from falling over. In the middle ground are colored men and 
women picking the nuts from the vines and into barrels to ship 
away. The white woman is evidently selling her crop to the 
man in front of her. Peanuts grow in the southern part of the 
country. 

234 A shower of almonds. An almond orchard in California. Men 
shaking the nuts onto a sheet. 



506 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

Sugar 

130 A maple tree grove. Tapping a tree; the sap running into pails; 

collecting the sap in wagons ; the shed where the sap is " boiled 

down " to syrup and " sugared off." 
35 Filling bags with granulated sugar made from either sugar cane 

or sugar beets. 
34 Loaf sugar received from drying kiln. 

Cotton 

117 Colored children picking cotton. A field of cotton in full bloom; 
a basket of picked cotton. Note that the cotton plant grows as 
tall as the larger girl in the foreground. Compare with plants 
the pupils know. 

Animals 

190 Sheep in a pasture. An Idaho range. Shepherd and sheep dog. 

173 A flock of sheep in the fall of the year. Heavy fleece on the 
sheep. Trees without leaves. 

172, 183, 122 Hogs feeding. A Kansas pasture. 

186, 127 Cattle at pasture. A western range. "Rounding up" a herd; 
a lasso ; calf in foreground of 127. 

188, 138, 71 Horses. 

57 Milking cows. Fine modern dairy barn. 

56 In a hen-house. A beautiful flock of white hens. Scratching lit- 
ter on floor; roosts on the left. The open box on right of the 
picture is a nest. 

239 Baby ostriches. Also ostrich eggs and grown ostriches. 

216 Geese. For meat and feathers. At large lumber mill. 

246 Dog team in Alaska. Miners within Arctic circle. 

Fish 

13 Drying codfish in the sun. A fishing boat in the right middle 
ground. The fish after being caught in the ocean are brought 
to shore, their heads cut off, they are split open, sprinkled with 
salt and put on racks in the sun to dry. Pupils can see cod- 
fish and haddock in the fish markets. Dry fish nowadays gen- 
erally is sold in shredded form or cut into pieces and packed 
in pound boxes. 

226 Catching salmon in nets. 

244 Indians drying salmon. 

Good Housekeeping 

33 A dainty dining room. 

Indians 

158 A little Hiawatha. Costume of mother; Indian blankets; cradle. 
204 Papooses. Cradle with Indian baby inside; blanket; braided 

hair of man. 
244 Indians drying fish in Alaska. 



AMERICAN COUSINS 507 



OUR BROTHERS AND SISTERS IN POSSESSIONS OF 
UNITED STATES 

260 Learning to be Americans. A schoolhouse and children in 
Hawaii ; the American flag. 

244 In cold Alaska. Drying fish. 

249 At the Panama Canal. A village scene. 

551 Our Philippine brothers. A coconut grove. The palm leaves 
and coconuts on the trees ; piles of coconuts ; taking off the 
husks, cutting open the nuts. Clothing of the native men and 
boys. 

550 Our Philippine sisters. Bamboo hut with thatched roof of dry 
grasses. Native girls in native dress pounding rice. 

548 Riding on oxen. Philippine natives on way to market. Note the 
baskets, the harness, the barefoot man and woman, the cloth- 
ing for a hot country and the American umbrella. Note also 
the shadow cast by the oxen, which shows that it is about noon. 

AMERICAN COUSINS TO THE SOUTH OF US 
Mexico 

290 Little cousins in gala dress. Children's costumes; odd hats of 

the men. 
281 Poor little Mexicans in untidy surroundings. 

Central America 

292 Learning to make corn cakes. A family scene. The mother is 
rolling the corn ; the older daughter is forming the dough 
into a cake; the small daughter is watching. Note the jar of 
water, the little stone table and roller and the odd-looking 
broom. 

294 In a banana grove. Bunches of bananas have been loaded on a 
mule. A man in the left foreground is taking down a bunch 
from the tree. In the midde ground, a bunch can be seen 
hanging high in the tree. Note the beautiful vista between the 
trees, the large leaves and the bananas growing upside down. 

298 A tropical farmyard. A thatched-roof cottage with the family 
gathered about the door. Note the palm trees, a sign of a hot 
country. 

South America 

306 South American cousins. School children, Brazil. Note their 
likeness in dress and general appearance to American school 
children. 

336 A city cousin. Playing on a balcony. 

324 Home from the store with mother. The little boy is carrying his 
mother's bundle. Politeness is the same all over the world. 

339 Fresh milk. A little boy is buying some milk for the family. 



508 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

The cow is brought to the door. Note the narrow street and 

sidewalks. 
338 The pet rooster. Looking down on a city of Venezuela. Note the 

baby without any clothes. This is a sign of a hot climate. Note 

also the tiny backyard in the foreground. This is a crowded 

tenement district. 
341 The baker. Note the height of the donkey compared with the 

height of the man. Then note the big barrels in which the 

bread is carried. 
328 Our cousins in furs and blankets. Note the different signs that 

the climate is cold — the furs, the blankets held tightly around 

the neck and body, the babies tucked down inside the fur 

wraps on the backs of their mothers. 

EUROPE 
British Isles 

347 Landing in England. Steamboats and wharf, Liverpool. 

378 Irish coal. Donkey carts loaded with peat. 

373 A home in Scotland. Summer time: afternoon tea: boy in mid- 
dle ground. Note the vine growing up over the cottage roof; 
the thatched roof; the grasses that are growing from the turf 
on the roof of the ell in the left foreground. Compare with 
281. 

Northern Europe 

411 Milking time in Norway. A farmyard scene. 

409 Carding and spinning wool in Norway. A basket of wool ; a 

woman combing it to straighten the fibers; a woman spinning; 
a spinning wheel and balls of spun wool. Note the women's 
costumes and the farm houses in the background. 

410 Making bread in Norway. An out-of-door kitchen. 

413 Milking time in Lapland. A herd of reindeer. Note their height 
compared with the man. Compare with animals the children 
know. Note also the pasture fence, and the child and dog in 
the foreground. 

481 Selling fish in Finland. Women are both selling and buying. 
See back of stereograph. 

396 Selling milk in Belgium. Dog cart, milk cans, peasant's dress. 

402 Dutch children. Costumes, wooden shoes. 

403 Milking time in Holland. Note the rope around the cows' hind 

legs to keep them from walking away; wooden shoes of men. 
Windmills in background. 
400 Dutch canal and windmill. Windmill works a large pump that 
pumps the water from the low land into the canal. 

Central Europe 

423 Flower market in Paris. 

431 Washday in France. Bringing bundles of clothes on head to 
wash; scrubbing; piles of wet clothes; drying them. Tell th* 



SOUTHERN EUROPE — JAPAN 509 

story of the dangers of floods related on back of the stereo- 
graph. 

390 Harvest time in a vineyard — Germany. Baskets of grapes ; height 
of vines ; long straight rows. 

393 Market day in Germany. 

388 Making hay in Germany. Note the pitch fork in the left fore- 
ground. 

465 School children — Poland. 

487 Russian girls selling milk. Milk carried in jars. Note caps, 

collars, ornamented skirts. 
485 Market day in Poland. Hebrew quarter. 
469 Market day in Bulgaria. A pile of onions, of potatoes, and of 

cabbages can be distinguished. 
471 Roumanian mother and children. Native costumes. 

488 Farmer boy in Russia. Hunting for worms. The boy in dress 

looks like an American farmer boy. The man's dress and his 
plow are distinctively Russian. 

447 Market day in Switzerland. Little country girl with basket and 
her goats; small garden on right (cf. 445) ; store on left; and 
tent-like booth in middle ground. Note wide overhanging roof 
and snow capped mountains. 

445 Home scene in Switzerland. Cottage ; winter's fire wood piled 
against the house ; sled runners suggesting the long winters ; 
rocks on the roof of the little shed to keep it from blowing 
away; the little garden fenced in to keep out the cows, goats 
and sheep that come down from the mountain pasture at 
night. Winter all the time on the top of the mountain in 
background. 

Southern Europe 

479 Harvest time in Greece. Mules treading on the grain to shake 

the seeds from the stalks. Note the costumes and the pitch 

fork. 
455 Neighbors in Sicily. Note how the clothes are put out to dry. 

This is the customary way in crowded tenement districts all 

over the world. 

437 Helping in an orange grove — Spain. 

438 Barrels of grapes from the vineyards, Spain. Children have 

seen the little barrels of white grapes packed in sawdust in 
fruit and grocery stores. The picture shows these barrels piled 
on two-wheeled carts. They are going from the vineyards to 
the wharf where the grapes will be shipped for foreign coun- 
tries, perhaps to America. 

ASIA 
Japan 

533 Bed time. See back of stereograph for description. 

534 Babies and flowers. See back of stereograph. 



510 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

535 A Japanese garden. Fine landscape gardening. Little girls in 

quaint dress. 
532 In a shoe shop. Cf. Wooden shoes in Holland 402, 403. 

530 Working in a tea field. Japanese girl, costume, basket. 

531 Drying sardines on the beach. 

538 Feeding silkworms on trays in silk factory; mulberry leaves. 

Korea 

542 Jars for sale. Note size and shape of jars and probable weight; 

the "saddle" on which they are carried; the peddler's hair; 
two kinds of Korean hats. 

543 Charcoal peddlers. 

China 

520 School children. Costumes and cues ; American teachers in back- 
ground. 

522 Farmer boys. Note height of donkey compared with the boys ; 
compare with reindeer 413 ; rude harness of ropes and wood. 

514 House boats. Bamboo roofs in sections; several sections raised 
on one side; platforms on side. The roofs are evidently the 
playgrounds of the children. 

India 

505 An elephant ride. Ornamented tusks and harness ; the cover- 

ings ; native costumes, especially turbans. 
509 Elephants at work. The harness and saddle; the driver's hooked 
■joad. 

506 Making shawls. Spinning wool (cf. Norwegian method 409) ; a 

loom with weavers ; natives, costumes, turbans. 
503 Going to church. Mosque (church) ; native, costumes. 

507 A queer kind of boat — inflated skins. 

Palestine 

498 Grinding wheat. See back of stereograph. 

AFRICA 
Egypt 

562 A farmer boy in Egypt. Oxen drawing a drag over a pile of 

beans ; boy helping. Note costume of hot country. 

563 Boys spinning cotton. Desert scene. 

Morocco 

555 Market day. Note the English and native costumes ; Native tents. 

BABIES IN MANY LANDS 

6 In Boston, Mass.; 158, 204 Indian; 328 In cold southern lands; 
338 In hot Venezuela; 455 In Sicily; 532, 534 In Japan. 



AT HOME — AT WORK — AT PLAY 511 



Children at Home 

6 Tenement, Boston; 122 Texas oil field; 158, 204, 263, 328 Indian 
children ; 236 California vineyard ; 239 On ostrich farm ; 249 At 
Panama ; 281 In an adobe home ; 292 Making totillas ; 298 On 
a Cuban farm ; 319 On an Argentina vineyard ; 336 Ecuador ; 
337 Colombia; 338, 339, 341 Venezuela; 343 Greenland; 354, 355 
At English cottages; 402 Holland; 411 Norway; 413 Lapland; 
455 In Sicily; 506 Kashmir, India; 546 Philippines. 

Children at School 

83 Children of the U. S. in a school garden. 

306 School children in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

260 Little American citizens in Hawaii. 

465 Polish school children. 

520 A mission school in China. 

Children at Work 

83 In school garden; 117 In the cotton fields; 175 Packing apples, 
Mo.; 244 Alaska; 396 Milk delivery, Belgium; 437 Picking 
oranges, Spain ; 438 Hauling Malaga grapes, Spain ; 488 Rus- 
sia ; 522 Boys plowing, China; 551 Husking coconuts, P. I.; 552 
Gathering hemp, P. I. ; 562 Threshing beans, Egypt ; 563 Spinning 
cotton, Egypt. 

Children at Play 

60 By the seashore ; 290 Mexicans ; 306 School children, Brazil ; 
336 Ecuador; 338, 339 Venezuela; 402 Dutch children; 435 
Holiday in Spain ; 471 Roumanian children ; 488 Russian 
boy. 

Some Children in Other Scenes 

32 Arriving at Ellis Island; 70 In an oil region; 61 Seeing Pitts- 
burgh; 187 At Butte, Montana; 202 In Box Canyon; 324 
Santiago, Chile; 340 Caracas, Venezuela; 367 At Stirling Castle; 
347 On landing stage, Liverpool ; 388 In hay fields, Germany ; 
392 On the banks of the Rhine, Bonn, Germany ; 378 With the 
"peat" carts, Killarney; 381 In the streets of Belfast; 387, 393, 
447 In the markets; 404 In Copenhagen; 486 In the streets of 
Kief, Russia ; 535 Japanese gardens ; 557 At the gates of Tunis ; 
564 In Egypt ; 576 Seeing Victoria Falls, Africa. 

Central Africa 

572 Market day. Baskets, jars, bowls for carrying and holding 
things to sell ; scanty clothing ; ornaments ; small quantities of 
things on sale. Note the porcelain washbasin in foreground 
and the wire fence and familiar gate in background, signs of 
nearness of white men. 



512 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 



SECOND SERIES OF STUDIES 

Stereographs and lantern slides grouped topically for the study of 
child life in different countries. 

House Work 

431 Wash day in France. 

455 Wash day in Sicily. 

292 Making corn cakes in Central America. 

410 Making barley bread in Norway. 

498 Grinding wheat and embroidering in Palestine. 

550 Preparing rice for breakfast in the Philippines. 

33 A well cared for dining room. 

Raising and Preparing Grain 

184 Corn ; 147 Oats ; 549 Harrowing rice field ; 528 Planting rice ; 529 
Harvesting rice; 550 Preparing rice for breakfast; 479 Treading 
out grain, Greece. 

Growing Vegetables 

47 Melons; 166 Potatoes; 137 Pumpkins; 562 Threshing beans in 
Egypt. 

Orchards and Vineyards 

175 Apples; 294 Bananas; 236 Grapes, Cal. ; 390 Grapes, Germany; 
237, 238 Oranges, Cal.; 437 Oranges, Spain; 85 Peaches; 108 
Pineapples. 

Harvesting Nuts 

234 Almonds; 551 coconuts; 118 peanuts. 

Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate 

303 Chocolate or cocoa ; 302 Coffee ; 530 Tea. 

Sugar 

130 A maple grove; 198, 270, 271 Sugar beets; 333, 258 Sugar cane; 
35 Granulated sugar; 34 Loaf sugar. 

Fish 

226 Fresh salmon; 227 Canning salmon; 13 Drying fish, Mass.; 244 
Drying fish, Alaska; 531 Drying sardines, Japan. 

Poultry and Birds 

401 Ducks; 583 Gannets ; 216 Geese; 415 Gulls; 56 White Leghorn 
hens: 338 Game cock; 359 Nightingale; 239 Ostriches; :84 
Penguins ; 240 Pigeons ; 535 White cranes. 

Cotton 

117 Where cotton grows and how it is gathered. 

124 Carrying the cotton to the mill where the seeds are removed. 



WOOL — BEEF — PORK 5 1 3 

119 Baled cotton ready to ship. 
14 Spinning cotton yarn in a United States mill. 
563 Spinning cotton in Egypt. 

Wool 

173, 190, 589 Where wool comes from. 
145 Shearing sheep. 

17 Sorting wool for making different kinds of cloth. 
409 Spinning wool in Norway. 
506 Spinning and weaving wool in India. 

Milk and Butter 

159, 165 Holstein dairy cattle eating grass. Dairy barns. 
57 Milking time in an American dairy. 

46 Filling and capping bottles of milk. 

45 1,000 lbs. freshly churned butter. 
403 Milking time in Holland. 
413 Milking reindeer in Lapland. 
411 Milking goats in Norway. 
339 Selling milk in Venezuela. 
396 Selling milk in Belgium. 
487 Selling milk in Russia. 

160, 184 Food for the cows, corn. 
181,388 Food for cows, hay. 

Beef 

186 On a ranch in Kansas. 

185 Fat cattle in feeding pens. 

140 Cattle in Union Stock Yards, Chicago. 

141 Dressed beef ready for shipment. 

Pork 

172, 183 Hogs in pasture. 

142 Splitting carcasses in packing house, Chicago. 

143 Trimming and skinning hams. 

144 Making link sausages. 
592 Even savages have pigs. 

Useful Animals 

565 Camels : 317, 403. 589 Cows : 190. 396. 246 Dogs ; 522, 378 Donkeys ; 
401. 564 Ducks: 505, 509 Elephants: 216 Geese: 411, 447 Goats; 
56 Hens ; 172, 183 Hogs ; 138. 147, 136, etc., Horses ; 294 Mules : 
239 Ostriches; 561, 298, 549 Oxen; 240 Pigeons; 190, 173 
Sheep ; 454 A mixed team. 

Selling Produce 

341 Selling bread — Venezuela; 375 Vegetables, Ireland; 378 Peat, 
Ireland; 542 Earthen jars, Korea; 543 Charcoal, Korea. 



514 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

Markets 

Many of the preceding lessons relate to raising food and the ma- 
terial of which clothes are made. Lessons based on the following will 
call in review previous lessons, for markets everywhere are places to 
which are brought the products of the soil. Such lessons should be 
related to a study by the pupils of the stores and markets that they 
visit daily. 

7 A market in a great American city ; 393, 387 Germany ; 395 Bel- 
gium; 423 Paris; 469 Bulgaria ; 481 Finland; 485 Poland; 555 
Morocco; 572 Central Africa; 375 Cork, Ireland. 



THIRD SERIES OF STUDIES 
Stereographs and lantern slides grouped to illustrate primitive life. 

PRIMITIVE LIFE 

Many schools introduce children in the primary grades to the study 
of geography and history through the study of primitive life. There 
are good reasons for this plan. Primitive life is simple and easily 
understood. Its very crudeness appeals to children's interests, because 
their own play is crude. Primitive life is also picturesque and children 
can find many things in it that they can imitate ; i.e., dramatize and 
fashion. 

The pictures relating to Indian life are grouped first, as generally 
this is the first type of primitive life considered. 

Indian Life 

158 Little Hiawatha. 

168 Minnehaha. 

169 Hiawatha and Laughing Water leaving the wigwam. 
265 A group of Indians — pageant picture. 

98 Pocahontas and John Smith — pageant picture. 
182 Mounted Indians. 

204 Indian family. Signs of white man's education; trousers; clean, 

white shirt ; felt hat ; braided hair. Compare with primitive 
woman and papoose. 
263 Basket making. These Indians live near a white man's town. 
Note signs of education. 

Primitive Homes 

359 A bird's home. One of the simplest of homes — a shelter from 
the storm and from bird enemies ; a soft, warm place in which 
to rear young. 

205 Cliff dwellers' home. Prehistoric. Protection from weather and 

enemies. 
265 Indian tent. Hides of wild animals and blankets are used where 
cloth cannot be bought. 



PRIMITIVE OCCUPATIONS 515 

263 Birch bark used for tent covering. 

113 A log cabin. Lincoln's birthplace. 

211 Pueblo, home of Indian tribe. 

281 Home of poor man in Mexico. Made of loose stone and clay. 

373 Home of poor people in Scotland. Much like home in 281 except 

slanting roof. There is. more rain in Scotland than in Mexico. 

Note grass growing on roof. How clean and cared for it is. 
372 Inside of cottage in Scotland. Burns' birthplace. Note modern 

steam radiator beside the primitive fireplace. 

549 Simple home in a hot country. In background the bamboo, 

thatched roof huts. 

298 Another hut in a hot country. 

546 Simple homes on a river. Houseboats in China. Straw mat- 
ting for roof, made in sections so that part can be raised at a 
time. 

592 Homes of Papuans in New Guinea. 

Some Primitive People 

328, 343 In a cold country. 
550, 592, 572 In hot country. 

Primitive Housekeeping 

410 Making bread in Norway. 

292 Making bread in Central America. Note also the homemade 
broom. 

550 Making rice flour. 
498 Making wheat flour. 

409 Spinning wool in Norway. 

506 Spinning wool and weaving in India. 

563 Spinning cotton in Egypt. 

Primitive Farm Work 

488 Plowing in Russia. The little boy looks very modern, but the 

plow is like those used hundreds of years ago. 
549 Harrowing in the Philippines. 

522 Plowing in Asia. 

561 Plowing in Egypt. 

562 Threshing beans in Egypt. 

479 Threshing grain in Greece. Note pitchfork. 
284 Threshing grain in Mexico. 

Other Occupations 

523 Sawing wood. 

516 Rolling a highway. The roller is modern, but the man-power is 

the most primitive form of motive power. 
244 Curing fish in Alaska. 

Burden Bearers 

572 In central Africa. Burdens carried on the head, 
543, 542 In Korea. 



516 CHILDREN OF THE WORLD 

554 Carts in Guam. 

548 Cattle in the Philippines. 

294, 524, 560 Pack Donkeys and Mules. 

Receptacles 

375 Baskets of all kinds. 

285 Pig skins for holding liquids. 

572 Native baskets and jars. 

Markets 

375 In Cork, Ireland. 

469 In Bulgaria. 

572 In central Africa. 

Clothing 

570 Made of bark of trees. The cloaks worn by the man are made of 

the bark similar to that he is peeling from the tree. 
328 Furs in cold climates. 
158 Blankets woven by natives and suits of leather. 



43. PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

By ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK 

PROFESSOR OF NATURE STUDY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA, N. Y. EDITOR " NATURE STUDY REVIEW " 

A. PLANTS 

i. Apples 

44 The man here is spraying the fruit trees with poisoned water 
so that the little caterpillars of the codling moth that make our 
apples "wormy" will get a drink of it as soon as they hatch 
from the egg and die before they bore into the tiny apple. He 
also sometimes puts substances into the water that kills the 
fungi which attack the fruit. See view 175 for fruit. Did you 
ever find a wormy apple? Do yon know the history of the cod- 
ling moth which causes it? 

2. Bananas 

294 If we could imagine the common dooryard weed, plantain, with 
leaves 20 feet high we would have some idea of the appearance 
of th) banana plant. From 12 to 16 of these great leaves form 
a giant rosette at the center of which grows a stalk on which 
appear clusters of tube-like flowers. Each of these flower clus- 
ters develops into a bunch of bananas which may weigh from 80 
to 100 pounds. In the tropics the fruit is cooked as a vegetable ; 
in Africa a drink is prepared from it, strong mats are made 
from the fibers of the leaves and the leaves themselves are dried 
and used to thatch the roofs of the dwellings. 

3. Cactus 

209 The cactus is a desert plant. Spines are all the leaves which it has. 
All the moisture which the cactus can gather, it stores up in 
its fleshy stems and does not waste it by sending it out to 
evaporate from leaves. This is a picture of the giant cactus 
which grows in the Arizona desert, and almost every one of 
them has in it a woodpecker hole. The owls sometimes nest in 
these holes so the giant cactus is really a bird house. How 
many kinds of cacti do you know? Have you seen one blos- 
som? If so, describe it. 

517 



518 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 

4. Cocoa 

303 The cacao tree grows about 20 feet high and has large glossy 
leaves. The fruit is a great pod from 7 to 10 inches long, which 
does not grow upon the little branches like the pod of a locust 
but springs from the trunk or a large branch as if nailed there. 
Cacao trees grow wild in Central and South America and are 
cultivated in many countries. The fruit pod is hard and leath- 
ery and has five cells in each of which are 12 or fewer large 
seeds. These seeds are called beans; they are gathered and 
prepared by a long process and are finally roasted and ground 
into powder which is known to us as cocoa or chocolate. 
South American Indians used cocoa for food and drink long 
before Columbus discovered America. 

5. Coffee 

302 Can you see the coffee fruit which these people are pick- 
ing? Each fruit is red like a cherry and has two seeds at its 
center instead of one. Coffee blossoms are white and star-like 
and it requires six or seven months after the blossoms fall be- 
fore the fruit is ripe. Look at a coffee bean before it is ground 
and notice the flat side. Place two of the beans, flat sides to- 
gether, and see how they grow at the center of the fruit. 

6. Grapes 

236 Grapes have been grown for thousands of years. There are many 
species, some of them adapted for hot countries and some fitted 
for the temperate regions. We have in the United States sev- 
eral native species. These wild grapevines often climb the 
highest trees. The fruit of the grape is a berry and therefore 
what we call a bunch of grapes is really a cluster of berries. In 
the past grapes have been grown for the making of wines but 
now they are grown, in America, more largely for raisins and 
grape juice and for table use. 

7. Orange 

28, 237 The orange tree is an evergreen and its leaves shine as though 
they were varnished. The finest of our sweet oranges is a na- 
tive of China, while the original wild orange of Seville which 
was planted in Florida by the pioneer Spaniards has very bitter 
fruit. Now many varieties have been developed by men, one of 
the most noted being the navel seedless orange which is grown 
so largely in California. The orange trees cannot stand heavy 
frost without damage. 

8. Peach 

85 Some trees always. wrap their seeds in a pulp which we find 
most delicious. The peach, plum, and cherry all have this pleas- 



PEACH — PINEAPPLE 519 

ant habit but the most interesting part of the peach, from the 
peach tree's standpoint, is the pit because of the precious seed 
contained in its thick shell. When the peach pit is planted the 
hard shell pushes apart like magic and very soon after the seed 
within begins to grow. Do you think that an almond looks like 
a peach pit? Can you tell how these fruits resemble and differ 
from each other? 

9. Peanut 

118 The peanut grows on a trailing vine. Its flower is small and 
yellow and shaped somewhat like the flower of a pea or bean. 
But as soon as the blossom falls a queer thing happens. The 
branch on which the little pod is forming becomes stiff and 
pushes it down into the ground where it grows to be a peanut. 
If the young pod is not pushed into the ground it fails to grow. 
In how many different ways is the peanut used? Does its foliage 
make good hay? 

10. Pineapple 

108 The pineapple plant is a native of tropical America. In shape it 
resembles that of the dandelion only the leaves of the pine- 
apple stand out very gracefully, have many sharp teeth on them, 
and are from 2 to 3 feet or more in length. From the center of 
this rosette of leaves arises the fruit stem which at the top is 
crowded with many flowers in the form of a cone. The fruit 
develops from these flowers and retains its cone shape and be- 
cause of this resemblance is called the pineapple. 

11. Pumpkin 

137 The pumpkin is a beautiful fruit and if it grew on a tree instead 
of a vine we should think it very wonderful. The pumpkin 
blossoms are of two kinds and if it were not for the work of 
bees in carrying pollen from one flower to another no pumpkin 
would ever grow. The pumpkins were planted by the Indians 
before Columbus discovered America. Why are pumpkins 
planted in cornfields? For zvhat do the farmers use pumpkins? 
How do the children use them at Halloween? 

12. School Gardens 

83 The good gardener knows how to make the plants feel comfort- 
able. To do this the gardener must understand each plant that 
grows and its needs. He must know what sort of roots it has, 
its stems and leaves, how its blossoms look, and how the seeds 
grow, in what sort of soil the plant likes to live, and whether 
it needs much or little water. // you have a garden, are yov 



520 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 

acquainted with all the plants in itf Do you knozv the weeds 
from the garden plants ivhen they first appear? 

13. Sisal Hemp 

571, 289 Strong twine and rope are made from the fiber of hemp; but 
there are three very different plants used to make hemp. Sisal 
hemp is made from the leaves of a near relative of the century 
plant called Agave rigida which grows in hot countries like 
Yucatan and Uganda. The leaves grow in a great rosette at 
the base of the blossom stalks. Each leaf may weigh a pound 
and a half when fresh but it takes a thousand leaves to pro- 
duce fifty pounds of fiber. How does hemp twine differ in 
looks from other twine? Is it stronger? 

14. Tea 

530 The tea plant is an evergreen shrub which is usually allowed to 
grow about four or five feet high. The young tender leaves 
are plucked for tea and these have to go through a long process 
of curing and drying until finally they are in tiny rolls ready 
for market. We find at the store black tea and green tea which 
seem very different in color and taste but they both come from 
the same plant. The colors are produced by different methods 
of curing. Tea is grown mostly in China, Formosa and India. 



B. ANIMALS 

1. Alligator 

110 Alligators live in the warm waters around the shores of the Gulf 
of Mexico. The mother alligator makes a nest on the land in 
which she lays maybe sixty eggs a little larger than those of a 
hen. She covers the nest with twigs and dead leaves and the 
hot sun hatches the eggs. Then she takes the whole brood to 
shallow water where each baby alligator, scarcely more than 
eight inches long, can find plenty of small fish to eat. The big 
father alligator can bellow like a bull. What is alligator's skin 
used for? 

2. Beaver 

196 The beaver is the civil engineer of the animal world. It began 
building dams across our streams before Columbus discovered 
America. It cuts down trees with its sharp gnawing teeth so 
that they will fall across the stream and form the foundation of 
a dam which it then makes tight and firm with grass and sticks. 
The beaver needs a pond in which to live and build its house and 
so it builds a dam and makes the pond in a convenient place to 
find its food. It feeds upon the bark and twigs of trees which 
it cuts down and sinks in the water of its dam. How does the 



CATTLE — CHICKENS 521 

muskrat resemble the beaver in its habits? Read "In Beaver 
World" by Enos A. Mills. 

3. Bison — Buffalo 

232 The bison is often miscalled "buffalo" but the true buffaloes live 
in Asia and Africa. The bison used to roam on the western 
plains in great herds. In 1871 there is record of a herd 
twenty-five miles long grazing near the Arkansas River. These 
animals have been hunted and killed until now there are only 
about two thousand of them left and these are preserved and 
cared for in our national parks. Compare the bison with cattle 
and tell hotv they resemble each other in form and habits. 

4. Camel 

565, 564, 504, 518 The camel is especially fitted to take long journeys in 
the desert. Its stomach has a special reservoir of cells in which 
it is able to store water and so after drinking its fill it can go 
several days before drinking again. The hump on the camel is 
comprised largely of fat which is stored food and enables a 
camel to go for some time with only a small amount of food. 
The camel's feet are broad and flat and are fitted to travel over 
the soft, hot sand. The camel is so tall that it has to be taught 
to kneel in order that people can mount or pack merchandise 
upon it. 

5. Cattle 

57, 127 Cattle are raised either for milk or for beef. The Holstein- 
Friesian (165), the Jerseys (364), and the Ayrshires (371) are 
leading dairy breeds of cattle. They give great quantities of 
rich milk which is one of our chief food products. It is sold as 
milk or made into butter. The Shorthorns (317), Herefords 
(185), and Angus (370) are important beef breeds. These, with 
the exception of some of the Shorthorns, do not give enough 
milk to make them profitable in the dairy. They take on flesh 
readily and make good beef. 

6. Chickens 

56 The hen lays an egg a day until she has enough to make a nestful. 
Then she sits on them for three weeks, keeping them warm and 
turning each egg over carefully every day until the fluffy little 
bright-eyed chicks break the shells and come out all clothed in 
down and active, ready to follow their mother about while she 
scratches the earth and finds seeds and insects for them to eat. 
How does the mother hen call her chicks? How does she warn 
them of danger? How do we know when she has laid an egg? 
How are her strong toes and beak fitted to help her get her 
food? 



522 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 

7. Codfish 

13 The cod is a fish of the ocean and when it is fully grown may 
weigh 150 pounds. More than 600 fishing vessels are sent out 
from the United States each season to catch the codfish which are 
dressed and packed in salt when caught and at the end of the 
season are brought home and dried. Much of the fish sold under 
the name of codfish is not cod but may be some other kind of fish 
inhabiting the ocean. Read " Captains Courageous," by Kipling, 
which gives the story of the adventures of the cod fishermen. 

8. Eskimo Dogs 

279 How tired these dogs look ! They have been harnessed to the 
loaded sledge which may be seen in the picture and have drawn 
it many miles over snow and bare rock. These dogs are so 
strong that they are called huskies. They are very much like 
wolves in appearance and habits. One of these dogs, called 
" Klondike Jack," pulled 450 pounds 500 miles one winter. See 
view 246. In what other countries are dogs used to draw loads? 
Why are they better than horses for this purpose in very cold 
countries ? Read " Stickeen" by John Muir. 

9. Elephant 

509, 510 The elephant is the largest. animal we have that lives on land; 
it is very intelligent and has a wonderful nose which we call a 
trunk and with which it can pick up a log or a pin. It also has 
wonderful incisor teeth which we call tusks and which are solid 
ivory and so large that one may weigh 125 pounds. The young 
elephants shed these teeth just as we shed our first teeth. See 
views 505 and 573. What is ivory used for? Where do wild 
elephants live? Read " Toomai of the Elephants" in the Second 
Jungle Book of Kipling. 

10. Elk 

189 Of all the deer family, the elk is the most magnificent. A bull elk 
may weigh as much as 900 pounds and have antlers that spread 
60 inches from point to point. The strange thing about the 
antlers is that they are shed each year and new ones grow out 
again larger than the year before until maturity. It takes about 
nine years for an elk to attain full sized antlers which may weigh 
50 or 60 pounds. The elk feed upon vegetation but they are es- 
pecially fond of browsing upon trees and shrubs. 

11. Gannet 

583 The gannet is a sea bird and closely related to the pelican although 
it is goose-like in form. The wings of our most common species 
may measure six feet from tip to tip. Gannets nest upon certain 
chosen islands and each mother bird lays but one egg in a nest, 
which is usually a mere depression in the earth lined with a little 



GEESE — HOG — HORSE 523 

seaweed. The common gannet is found along the coast of North 
America, and other species along the South American and South 
African coasts. The gannets feed on fish and are of great use 
to the fishermen in aiding them to locate shoals of fish. These 
birds fly in single file over the ocean at the height of one to two 
hundred feet and when the keen eyes of one discovers a fish 
it drops like a bullet upon its prey and rarely misses it. 

12. Geese 

216 Geese are valuable for their feathers, eggs, and as food. They 
were formerly more extensively raised than at present. Before 
the invention of the metallic pens, goose quills supplied all the 
pens used. Geese are closely allied to ducks (see view 401) but 
much larger. 

13. Goat 

411 The goat is closely related to the sheep but its covering is hair 
instead of wool. Goats live in herds and, in a wild state, prefer 
mountainous regions. They are very skilled climbers and are 
very sure-footed. They feed upon vegetation and chew their 
food like a cow. They also were used as domestic animals in 
prehistoric ages. Their hair was woven into clothing, their skins 
were used for leather and also for carrying water. Their milk 
is considered very nutritious and from it special kinds of cheese 
are made. The flesh of the young goats makes very good meat. 

14. Hog 

183 From a very early period indeed the hog has been a domesticated 
animal. Its flesh provides a large part of the food of many 
nations. The skin of the hog is made into leather. The bristles 
are much used for making brushes. For packing house views, 
see 142 to 144. 592 Even savages have pigs. 

15. Horse 

398 Look at these horses and see how strong and large their 
shoulders and necks are and how big and firm are their feet. 
France and Belgium and England all have developed breeds of 
horses famous for their ability to draw heavy loads. See views 
138 and 71. Where does a strain come upon a horse in drawing 
a heavy load? Why does it need big firm feet to do this work? 
Hotv does a draft horse differ from a trotting horse in form? 
View 186. What is this horse doing? 

16. Kangaroo 

558 When any creature has long, strong hind legs it is sure to 
be a great jumper whether it is a grasshopper, a frog, a 
rabbit, or a kangaroo ; twenty-five feet at one leap and ability 
to keep it up for miles is the record of the kangaroo. The 
mother kangaroo has a pouch in which she carries her babies just 
like our opossum. The kangaroo lives upon grass and its home 



524 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 

is in Australia. How does the kangaroo fight ? What is its skin 
used for? What country has a kangaroo on its postage stamp? 

17. Llama 

335 The llama belongs to the same family as the camel and is used 
as a beast of burden in the mountains of South America. It 
is about four and a half feet high when full grown. It fur- 
nishes milk and wool and its flesh is eaten by the Indians. 
From what wool is alpaca made? 

18. Moose 

2 The moose is the largest species of all the deer family. The bull 
moose has antlers that sometimes measure six feet from tip to 
tip, and may weigh ninety pounds. Moose get their food by 
browsing on the leaves of shrubs and trees ; they are good swim- 
mers. The cow moose has no antlers; it is the cow moose shown 
in the picture. Do you knozv in what part of North America 
the unld moose are still found? 

19. Ostrich 

239 Here we see two baby ostriches just out of the shell and 
another egg which has just been pipped. An ostrich egg is 
about six inches long and equal in contents to two dozen hen's 
eggs. Back of the fence you can see the full grown birds. They 
are the largest birds we have. They live in a wild state in 
Africa but are now raised for their plumes (quill feathers of the 
wings and tail) as we see in this California scene. The legs 
are big and powerful and able to deliver a kick almost equal to 
that of a horse. A full grown male ostrich stands fully seven 
feet high and weighs almost 200 pounds. 

20. Oyster 

86 The oyster has such a soft body that it needs its shell to protect 
it. Although it is so soft, it has a mouth, stomach, liver, heart 
and gills. When first hatched the young oyster can move about 
but soon settles and grows fast to some object. It lives in 
shallow salt water. It has two shells which are hinged and 
which it can open when it is feeding and can shut when it is 
frightened. Where are oysters grozvn? For what are oyster 
shells used? 

21. Penguin 

584 The penguin is a bird fitted for swimming and not for flying. 
It has flippers instead of wings ; its feet are strongly webbed 
and its feathers are scale-like. It stands erect on land and 
makes its nest in a shallow burrow. The penguins nest in 
flocks of thousands on certain islands. Their eggs are gathered 
and sold in the markets of South African towns. How does the 
duck swim? How does the penguin differ from it in this re- 
spect? 



SALMON — SEAL — SHEEP 525 

22. Reindeer 

413 In the cold and frozen north regions this animal takes the 
place of both horse and cow. The reindeer is brownish-grey in 
color ; its hair is an inch thick to keep it warm. Both the males 
and females have antlers. They have large dewclaws and large 
crescent-shaped feet which serve as snowshoes. Reindeer live 
upon the hard dry little plants that we call lichens and they have 
to dig them from under the snow very often. They were 
domesticated long ago by the Laplanders. They are used to 
draw the sledges and their milk and their flesh are used for 
food. The United States Government in 1891 introduced the 
reindeer into Alaska. Our native caribou belongs to the rein- 
deer family. 

23. Salmon 

226 The salmon are among the best food and game fishes in the 
world. After they are grown they live in the ocean but they 
come back to the fresh water streams in great schools to lay 
their eggs. It is when they are coming back for this purpose 
that they are caught in the nets and killed by the tens of thou- 
sands for the markets and canning factories. Where does the 
canned salmon which we eat come from? Read " The Story 
of a Salmon" by David Starr Jordan to learn the life history of 
one of these interesting fish. 

24. Seal 

345 The fur seal is awkward on land but is a wonderful swimmer al- 
though it is a mammal and not a fish. It lives in the water 
most of the time and feeds upon fish and mollusks. In the 
spring the seals go to favorite islands where the " pup " seals 
are born and all these young ones live together in thousands ; 
but each mother can go away and get food and come back and 
pick out her own baby to feed without making any mistake. 
Why do the Eskimo hunt and kill the seals? For what is seal 
skin used? Describe the seal fur. 

25. Sheep 

173 The sheep are cud-chewing, hollow-horned, hoofed animals ; 
they feed upon grass and herbage, but can also live upon moss 
and lichens in the high mountains. In some species only the 
males have horns, in others the females also have them. Sheep 
have been domesticated since before the dawn of history. Their 
wool has been used to make clothing, their skins have been used 
for leather and clothing, their flesh for food. There are many 
domestic varieties of sheep. The handsomest of all wild sheep 
is found in North America. It is the bighorn or Rocky Moun- 
tain sheep. 



526 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — PLANTS, ANIMALS 

26. Sponge 

11 1 The sponge which we use when we take a bath is the skeleton of 
a very peculiar animal. Its flesh is just like jelly and it covers 
the whole sponge. It lives grown fast to some rock below the 
surface of the water. It pumps water through the many pores 
of its flesh and skeleton and gathers from the water material to 
eat. The baby sponge can swim about. How are sponges pre- 
pared for market? 

27. Whale 

415 The whale is not a fish although it lives in the water. It is warm- 
blooded and the mother whale feeds her young calf on milk just 
as a cow feeds hers. The whale breathes air by coming to the 
surface and filling a breathing chamber with fresh air and then 
dives and remains under water for some time. When it next 
comes up for air it spouts .out the impure air in a fountain of 
spray. The whale is the largest animal in the world as it some- 
times is seventy-five feet long and it may require a hundred 
years to get its growth. What is whalebone? For what is 
whale oil used? 

28. Woodcock 

72 The woodcock lives along streams or marshes where it is able to 
push its long bill into the soft mud and feel for worms to eat. 
Its bill is very sensitive, and the end of the upper part is mov- 
able. The woodcock is a game bird, prized by hunters. It is 
brown with black markings, exactly the color of wood and dead 
leaves. This makes it difficult to see. 



44. READING 

By CHARLES MADISON CURRY, A.M. 

CHAIRMAN OF THE EDUCATIONAL SURVEY COMMITTEE 
PROFESSOR OF LITERATURE IN THE INDIANA STATE NORMAL 
SCHOOL, TERRE HAUTE, IND. 

One of the most important problems for the teacher of read- 
ing is that of securing the proper visualization or image in the 
pupil's mind. That means that the reader's mind must act 
somewhat as a moving picture machine and produce a series 
of clear and connected images. The language of a poem or 
story suggests these images for us. 

As life becomes more complex and each individual tends to 
confine his experiences to one small part of the world's activi- 
ties, he is likely to have a body of experiences too narrow for 
fully interpreting much that he reads. When the larger por- 
tion of our population was rural and most of the processes 
concerned in producing food and clothing and other common 
needs passed before the eyes of almost every individual, an 
extended common body of experiences could be assumed as a 
basis upon which to build. But the rapid growth of cities and 
industrialism has changed all this. 

Older teachers who spent their childhood in the country are 
constantly surprised at the growing inability of children to 
understand some of the passages in such a simple poem as 
Whittier's " Snow Bound." The fact is that " Snow Bound " 
is no longer a simple poem, since few children have the oppor- 
tunity nowadays of a group of winter experiences which prac- 
tically all children had sixty years ago. The passage telling 
the manner in which the fire was built " as night came on " 
falls on deaf ears. Such terms as " backlog," " backstick," 
" forestick," have to be explained in some concrete fashion. 
The modern furnace offers no point of contact with the old- 
fashioned fireplace, and the open fire of coal offers little more. 
The " well sweep " and the " well curb " are entirely outside 
the pupils' world. With small knowledge of the habits of bees, 
they are unable quickly to understand what the poet means 
when he speaks of the marshes as " mile wide as flies the laden 
bee." 

527 



528 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

Such deficiency must be overcome in some way. Language 
must be alive. It is alive to the user when it grows directly 
out of definite experiences, and it is alive to the listener 
or the reader when it suggests definite meanings and images 
to' him. 

In primary classes, children are at first generally taught 
words that name familiar objects, such as dog, cat, horse. Be- 
fore the word is given, the object (say, a dog) is called before 
the mind by means of a conversation in which the children are 
encouraged to talk about interesting dogs they have known 
and, in various ways, the story or meaning or image to be asso- 
ciated with the word is made definite. Many pictures of dogs 
may be brought by members of the class or by the teacher. 
Primary teachers find pictures or other concrete illustrations 
an absolute necessity in all lines of work. 

The " 600 Set " contains many pictures that will help give a 
background for much of the reading work. It should, of 
course, be kept in mind that the pictures have not been made 
to interpret the story or poem. They deal with the raw ma- 
terial out of which the story or poem has been constructed. 
Sometimes only a portion of the picture can be helpful, per- 
haps a child in the foreground or a mountain in the distance. 
For instance, in the well known fairy story of " The Snow 
Queen " there is a good deal about a reindeer, Lapland, Fin- 
land, and the cold regions of the north. At one place in the 
story the Snow Queen refers to Mt. Etna and Mt. Vesuvius 
as her " black kettles." Some or all of the following group 
could be used to advantage in illustrating the background of it. 

I. READING FROM TEXTBOOKS 

THE SNOW QUEEN 

413 Reindeer. 

414 Midnight sun. 

481 Fish wives of Finland. 
453 Mt. Vesuvius. 

A CHILD'S GARDEN OF VERSES 
By Robert Louis Stevenson 
Some of Stevenson's poems in this book admit of the same kind of 
suggestive illustration. The seven titles following are taken from it. 



SINGING — TRAVEL 529 



Foreign Children 



158 " Little Indian, Sioux or Crow." 

343 " Little frosty Eskimo." 

474 " Little Turk." 

534 " Or Japanee." 

239 Ostriches and their eggs. 

Singing 

359 " Of speckled eggs the birdie sings, 

And nests among the trees ; " 
217 " The sailor sings of ropes and things," 
511, 525 "In ships upon the seas." 
530, 532, 535 " The children sing in far Japan." 
437 " The children sing in Spain." 

The Cow 

356, 403 " The friendly cow all red and white." 
57, 403 " She gives me milk." 

Travel 

493 " Mosque and Minaret." 

524 " Where the Great Wall round China goes." 

568 " Some deserted city." 

504 " With a camel caravan." 

Where Go the Boats 

33, 52, 242, 254, 511, etc. "Where go the boats?" 
39, 397 " Dark brown is the river." 
564 " Golden is the sand." 



Historical Associations 

480 " Simple Shepherd's Land." 

THE WORLD 
By W. B. Rands 

38 A beautiful valley landscape. 
90 A view over Washington. 
1.26 Where Davy Crockett lost his life. 



530 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

535 Tn Japan. 

38 Hudson Valley. "Great wide, beautiful, wonderful world," 

382 Ireland. " With the beautiful waters around you curled." 

361 England. "And the wonderful grass upon your breast — " 

444 Switzerland. " World, you are beautifully dressed." 

THE HIAWATHA STORIES 
158 " Nursed the little Hiawatha, Rocked him in his linden cradle." 

168 " Brought forth food and set before them." 

169 Hiawatha and Minnehaha departing in the birch canoe. " From 

the wigwam he departed, Taking with him Laughing-Water." 

265 Indian encampment by a river. 

184 The feast of Mondamin. " Yes, the friend of man, Mondamin." 

600 " Gleamed like Ishkoodah the comet." 

413 " I have given j'ou roe and reindeer." 

182 "Then in swift pursuit departed." 

196 " To a dam made by the beavers." 

INDIAN STORIES 

204 An Indian family in Colorado. 

244 Indians drying fish in Alaska. 

263 Indians weaving baskets. 

328 Indians of southern South America. 

STORIES OF HOLLAND 

52 The great ocean liner to carry us across the Atlantic. 

400 Where we may land in Holland. Notice the windmill. 
399 Canal and market, Amsterdam, Holland. 

401 An interesting fishing village in Holland. 

402 Some of the children seen in a village street. 

403 Milking scene on a farm in Holland, with windmills in the dis- 

tance. 

STORIES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

113 Abraham Lincoln's early home. 

91 Abraham Lincoln as President. 

73 Abraham Lincoln' in the Civil War. 

146 Abraham Lincoln as a living influence. 

STORIES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON 

96 Washington's early life and home. 
61 The story of Fort Necessity and Braddock's defeat. 
9 Washington taking command of the American army. 
37 Some people wished to make Washington king. His farewell to 

the army. 
29 Washington as President. 



ANIMAL STORIES 531 

NUREMBURG 

By Longfellow 

387 " Quaint old town of toil and traffic, quaint old town of art and 
song." 

BREAK, BREAK, BREAK 
By Tennyson 
382 Sea breaking on a rockbound coast. 

AMERICA 

By S mi tli 
1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 25, 38, 61, 71, 72, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 110, 117, 127, 178, 
182, 188, 190, 198, 207, 208, 215, 221, 222, 224, "My country, 
'tis of tbee." (It is a good plan to give children an idea of 
what " my country " really means, and of how many people may 
say it.) 
222, 228 " I love thy rocks and rills." 
38, 39 "Thy woods and templed hills." 

HOME, SWEET HOME 
By Hozvard Payne 

60, 91, 384 " Mid pleasures and palaces tho' we may roam." 
373 " Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home." 
96, 354, 355, 373 " There's no place like home." 

WHO STOLE THE BIRD'S NEST? 
By L. M. Child 
356 " ' Not I,' said the cow." 
480 " ' Not I,' said the sheep." 

ANIMAL STORIES 

110 Alligator; 196 Beaver; 549 Buffalo; 565, 564 Camels; 118, 204, 
246, 279 Dogs; 341, 522, 557 Donkeys; 505 Elephants; 189 Elk; 
411, 447 Goats; 138, 204 Horses; 588 Kangaroo; 2 Moose; 172, 
183 Pigs; 413 Reindeer; 345 Seals; 173, 190, 480 Sheep. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

452 " Androclus and the Lion." 

555, 494, 557, 558, 560, 562, 563, 564, 565 Stories of Arabs. 

398 " Black Beauty." By Anna Sewell. 

400 " Blow, wind, blow ; and go, mill, go." 



532 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

365 to 373 Stories of Bruce. 

530, 532, 534, 535 Boys and girls of Japan. 

520 The Chinese school. 

513 to 524 Chinese stories. "Aladdin" had its setting in China. 

56 Chickens. 
348 to 352 Dick Whittington, Lord Mayor of London. 
365 to 373 Stories of Douglass. 

445, 449 " The Fir Tree." By Hans Christian Andersen. 
159, 353 "The Foolish Weathercock." 
475 to 480 " Stories of Ancient Greece." 
131, 132, 133 Charles Goodyear. 
401, 402 " The Leak in the Dike." By Cary. 

60, 382 " Little Drops of Water." 
158, 204 "Little Papoose." 
130 Making maple sugar. 
173 " Mary had a little lamb." 

104, 105 " One Little Bag of Rice." By Thomas Smith. 
407 to 414 Old Norse legends. 

98 Story of Pocahontas and John Smith. 
359, 204 " Rock-a-bye, baby, in the tree-top " 
450 to 452 " Stories of Ancient Rome." 
480 " The Shepherd." By Wm. Blake. 
525, 27 " A ship, a ship a'sailing." 
217 "A'sailing on the sea." 
356, 403 " Thank you, pretty cow." 
411, 447 "Three goats named Gruff." 



II. SUPPLEMENTARY READING 

No reading course today is confined to the school reader. 
To be sure there always must be an intensive study of certain 
selected pieces of literature in order that children may be 
taught how to read. But knowing how is not enough, they 
must be led to do it. All during life, reading must be the chief 
method by which knowledge will be obtained. The reader 
will be intelligent. In school then, supplementary reading is 
introduced in order to give children breadth of ideas and some 
knowledge of the wealth of books about them. 

Teachers will find that the Keystone stereographs in them- 
selves furnish a supply of supplementary reading of a very fine 
quality. The descriptions on the backs of the views are written 
in clear and simple English for the special use of children. 
They contain a wealth of good reading matter in a wonderfully 
fluid form so that their uses are almost illimitable. One day 



SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS 533 

the views may be selected so as to give a geographical reader 
full of most interesting facts. Another day an historical reader 
may be made, or a book of industries or of people. More peo- 
ple get knowledge through the eyes than through the ears. 
These views may be used as supplementary reading so as to 
give much needed training in this line. In most reading classes 
all the children have books and each may get the thought for 
himself, keeping only so much track of the reader as will enable 
him " to keep the place." When the Keystone Views are used 
as the reader, only one child can read at one time. He must 
give the meaning to the others, they must get it from him. 
Such lessons are invaluable, giving expression, attention and 
self-control. 

Some few books, such as " Carpenter's Geographical Read- 
ers," " Seven Little Sisters," etc., seem to be almost universally 
selected for supplementary reading, and these are readily vis- 
ualized by the Keystone Views. This combination of books 
and views cannot be surpassed. 

A. SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS 

By Jane Andrews (Ginn and Co.) 

The Little Brown Baby 

554 A tropical scene. " Far away in the warm country." P. 5. 
551 Coconuts. " She drinks the sweet milk of the coconut from a 
round cup made of its shell." P. 6. 

Agoonak 

342 Greenland. The kind of country in which Agoonak lives. 

345 Antarctic regions. " The seals love best to live in the seas of the 

cold countries." P. 11. 
413 Laplanders. The reindeer " is their kind, gentle, and patient 
friend." P. 16. 

346 Norway. From ice fields such as these " the great white whale 

came swimming down from the far north." P. 21. 

Gemila 

565 The Sphinx and Pyramid, Egypt. "Did you ever see a camel?" 

P. 29. 
494 Syria. An Arab and his horse. P. 30. 
504 India. A camel caravan. (Notice the shadows.) P. 32. 



534 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

239 Ostrich farm, California. " See, there is the ostrich ! " P. 35. 
564 Nile River, Egypt. " Green feathery tops of the palm trees." 
P. 40. 

The Little Mountain Maiden 

443 Switzerland. "A little chamois — carved of wood." P. 43. 
448 Switzerland. " Those high snowy peaks." P. 43. 

445 Switzerland. " This small house upon the great hills." P. 44. 
447 Switzerland. " She should go with him on market days, to sell 

the goats' milk cheeses." P. 48. 

444 Switzerland. " Over the green grass, over the rocks, far up 

among the snow and ice, and the frozen streams that pour down 
the mountain sides." P. 50. 

446 Switzerland. " Among the mountains the echoes answer each 

other again and again." P. 51. 
443 Switzerland. The wood carver. P. 52. 

The Story of Pense 

514 Yangtse River. Houseboats, Canton, China. P. 59. 
517 Hankow, China. " Here it was that Pense saw the little lady in 
the house on the hill." P. 61. 

520 Peking, China. Where " the little lady " goes to school. 

521 Chifu, China. " Store of a great merchant." P. 63. 

530 Shizuoka, Japan. " When the tea leaves were in bloom." P. 69. 

537 Japan. " Mulberry trees, with their purple fruit and white." 

P. 69. 

538 Japan. " The little worms that eat the mulberry leaves." P. 69. 

539 Japan. " Spin for themselves a silken shell, and fall into a long 

sleep inside of it." P. 69. 

540 Japan. " Spin off the fine silk and make it into neat skeins." 

P. 69. 

The Little Dark Girl 

592 New Guinea village. Some of Manenko's people. 

578 Rhodesia, S. A. " The chief is very proud and happy to bring 

home such a load." P. 80. 
573. Mombasa, S. A. Where ivory is shipped. P. 80. 
557 Tunis. " Oh, what mighty beasts ! " P. 82. 
572 Central Africa. "These are simple, happy people." (Notice 

ornaments.) P. 83. 
576 Rhodesia, S. A. " The wonders of the things about them." P. 84. 

Louise, the Child of the Beautiful River Rhine 

392 Germany. "Have you heard of the beautiful River Rhine?" 

P. 85. 
391 River Rhine, Germany. " Sweeping between the high hills." 

P. 85. 
390 Rudesheim, Germany. " Here the grapes are hanging in heavy 

purple clusters." P. 92. 



GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 535 

Louise, the Child of the Western Forest 

386 Hamburg, Germany. 

25 The Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor. 

30 New York City. " They are to stop but two days in this city." 
P. 102. 

32 Ellis Island. Where " they reached the land again." P. 104. 
113 Log cabin. The kind of house they lived in. P. 107. 



B. CARPENTER'S GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 

(American Book Company) 

i. North America 

102 Blue Ridge, S. C. " The green Appalachians." P. 14. 
221 Mt. Hood, Ore. " The lofty, snow clad peaks of the Rocky Moun- 
tain highland." P. 14. 
189 Wild elk, Montana. " There are wild animals in the mountains." 

P. 16. 
43 Central New York. " The United States has more railroads than 

has any other country." P. 17. 
93 Washington, D. C. " The circles and triangles are filled with 
statues, fountains, flowers and trees." P. 21. 

91 The White House. " The roadway which leads to the great porch 

before the front door." P. 27. 

92 Washington, D. C. " Later on we are shown the Cabinet room." 

P. 31. 
90 Washington, D. C. " Down Pennsylvania Avenue to the National 
Capitol." P. 31. 

87 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. " It appears like a huge marble 

palace with a great white dome." P. 31. 

88 President Wilson reading message. " We are in the hall of the 

House of Representatives." P. 31. 

89 Supreme Court room. " We can go into the same room." P. 34. 
100 Hampton Roads. " A country like ours must have many warships 

to defend it." P. 37. 
242 San Diego Bay, Cal. " There are torpedo boats, which travel be- 
low the surface of the water and send out bombs." P. 38. 

86 Shucking oysters. " There are in Baltimore many thousand men 
and women who do nothing but take the oysters out of their 
shells." P. 52. 

97 Hampton, Va. " There are also oyster farms . . . where the seed 
oysters are put and where shells are thrown into the water to 
which the young oysters can fasten themselves." P. 52. 

81 Philadelphia, Pa. " Thousands are busy weaving woolen cloths." 

P. 55. 

82 Baldwin Locomotive Works. " Others who are doing work in 

iron and steel." P. 55. 



536 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

80 Old Liberty Bell. " We visit Independence Hall, where the 
Declaration of Independence was adopted." P. 57. 

84 Philadelphia mint. " The coining is done by the coining ma- 
chine." P. 62. 

30 Broadway, New York. " The chief business street of New York. 

. . . How lively it is and how noisy ! " P. 66. 

25 New York City. " How high the buildings are ! " P. 68. 

28 New York City. " We walk up Broadway past City Hall Park." 

P. 68. 

29. New York City. " We are in the Wall Street section." P. 69. 

31 New York City. " Let us . . . take a ride to the lower part of the 

island." P. 72. 

26 Ferry slips, New York. " New York has twenty-five miles of 

water front on Manhattan Island alone." P. 75. 
52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J. " A procession of steamers is always 
moving back and forth." P. 76. 

32 Ellis Island, New York. " We visit the place where these immi- 

grants land." P. 79. 

27 Brooklyn Bridge, New York. " It is an immense structure of 

stone and steel." P. 81. 
14 Lawrence, Mass. " Many kinds of cotton goods come from its 
factories/' P. 86. 

15, 16 Lawrence, Mass. " Huge mills which make ginghams, mus- 
lins, calicoes." P. 86. 

17, 18 Lawrence, Mass. " A large part of woolen goods of the 
United States is made in New England." P. 87. 

19, 20 Holyoke, Mass. " In Massachusetts are some of the biggest 
paper mills of this country." P. 87. 

21 Providence, R. I. " There are large factories in Rhode Island 
which make beautiful jewelry." P. 87. 

11 Lynn, Mass. " Let us visit one of the shoemaking establishments." 

P. 91. 
41 Syracuse, N. Y. " Machines that will sew six hundred pairs of 
shoes in a day." P. 92. 

12 Lynn, Mass. " Each part of the shoe is made by a different ma- 

chine." P. 92. 
1 Logs, Aroostook Co. " Maine has large forests of pine and other 
trees." P. 95. 

13 Gloucester, Mass. " They catch millions of dollars' worth of fish 

every year." P. 95. 

3 Concord, N. H. " Cut into blocks, to be shipped to all parts of 

our country." P. 96. 

4 Proctor, Vt. " More care is used in getting out marble." P. 96. 

5 Proctor, Vt. " They are carefully smoothed and polished." P. 96. 
130 Maple sugar tree. " Holes are then bored in the trees not far 

above the ground." P. 98. 
7,8 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall; Old State House. "Every- 
where in Boston we see things which remind us of the stirring 
times of the past." P. 102. 



GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 537 

6 Boston, Mass. "We next visit the old North Church." P. 104. 
10 Lexington Common, Mass. " In the books you have read 

How the British regulars fired and 
fled." P. 104. 

109 Old slave market. " They were kept in slavery until freed during 

the great Civil War." P. 108. 

118 Harvesting peanuts. "The vines are then dug up . . . with the 

nuts hanging to them." P. 110. 
112 Tobacco field, Kentucky. "We see tobacco fields everywhere." 

P. 115. 
117 Mississippi plantation. " Negroes and whites walk through the 

rows and pull the soft white lint from the stalks." P. 118. 

124 Greenville, Texas. " After picking, the cotton is carried to the 

gin." P. 121. 

125 Greenville, Texas. " The men throw the cotton into the top of a 

machine so that it falls between fine circular saws so arranged 
that the seeds can just pass between them." P. 122. 
14 Lawrence, Mass. " Rolled upon long spools, called spindles, by 
what is known as the mule spinner." P. 126. 

104 Rice fields, South Carolina. " The fields have little banks about 

their edges." P. 130. 

105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. " The soil is then plowed and 

hoed." P. 130. 

106 Along the wharf. " Brings us to Savannah, a thriving seaport." 

P. 134. 

107 A turpentine farm, South Carolina. " There are farms of this 

kind all along our South Atlantic coast." P. 135. 

110 Palm Beach, Fla. " Alligators by the hundreds crawl through 

the muddy waters." P. 139. 

108 Harvesting pineapples. " In southern Florida we see great fields 

of pineapples." P. 148. 
120 Mississippi Delta, La. " We enter the Mississippi River through 
. . . one of its mouths." P. 149. 

119 Levee, New Orleans. "Hundreds of thousands of bales . . . are 

sent from here every year." P. 156. 

198 Greeley, Col. ; 270, 271 Montreal, Can. " In the western part of 
our country a great deal of sugar is now made from beets." 
P. 158. 

148 East St. Louis, 111. " The Mississippi River is very hard to 
control." Pp. 167, 168. 

174 St. Louis, Mo. " We look at the huge bridges across the Missis- 
sippi." P. 172. 

184 Corn field, Kansas. " We are . . . looking over a sea of green 
leaves, spotted with the golden tassels." P. 173. 

136 Corn cutter and binder, Ind. " The corn crop is now ready for 

harvest". P. 173. 

137 Indiana. "Cut and shocked." P. 173. 

180 Omaha, Neb. "Turn under the tough sod." P. 179. 

179 South Dakota. " Harrowed in much the same way " P. 179. 



538 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

199 Fort Collins, Col. " Stand them on end in shocks." P. 180. 

177 Red River Valley, N. Dak. " More than one thousand bushels of 
wheat in a day." P. 180. 

233 Harvester, California. " These great machines are often drawn 
by steam engines." P. 181. 

218 Reaper and thresher, Washington. " Or by teams of from twenty- 
five to thirty horses and mules." P. 181. 

167 Street scene. " Minneapolis is a fine city." P. 183. 

157 Houghton, Mich. " Ships loaded with copper from the mines of 
the Michigan peninsula." P. 187. 

154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. " We are in the famous lock of the Soo 
Canal." P. 190. 

163 Mesabi Range, Minnesota. " Our richest beds of this ore . . . 

are about Lake Superior." .P. 193. 

164 Two Harbors, Minn. " A fleet of fast steamers is kept busy 

carrying the ore down the Great Lakes to the furnaces." P. 193. 

156 Calumet, Mich. "The golden liquid is poured into the molds." 
P. 198. 

162 Minnesota pineries. " A load of logs big enough to fill an ordi- 
nary bedroom." Pp. 202-203. 

48 Mouth of Canal. " The Erie Canal, which has its terminus at 

Buffalo." P. 209. 

128 Conneaut, Ohio. " The iron ore docks." P. 212. 

49 Niagara Falls — summer. "Then take their hundred-and-sixty 

foot leap downward into the great abyss below." F. 214. 

50 Niagara Falls — winter. "How the river thunders as it dashes 

over the rocks ! " P. 216. 
122 Beaumont, Tex. " Derricks must be erected." P. 222. 
69, 70 Oil field, Pennsylvania. " A torpedo of nitroglycerin is put 

down into the bottom of the well and exploded." P. 222. 
103 Sapphire Co., N. C. " He had to make the charcoal." P. 229. 

76 Scranton, Pa. "Anthracite coal is almost as hard as stone." 

P. 230. 
79 Ashley, Pa. " This is done in what is known as a coal breaker." 

P. 232. 
78 Scranton, Pa. " They are then run through inclined troughs, or 

chutes." P. 232. 

129 Conneaut, Ohio. " Vast amounts of coal are shipped from Pitts- 

burgh to many parts of our country." P. 233. 
75 Hazleton, Pa. " Let us go into one of the mines." P. 234. 

77 Scranton, Pa. "A little railroad traci< which has been made for 

the coal cars." P. 234. 

61 Pittsburgh, Pa. " Where the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers 

flow together." P. 236. 
116 Steel furnace. "Birmingham, [Ala.] . . . promises some day to 

rival Pittsburgh in its product of iron and steeL" P. 236. 
68 Connellsville, Pa. " They are the coke ovens." P. 238. 

62 Pittsburgh, Pa. " The smelting furnaces are immense round iron 

tanks." P. 2^0. 



GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 539 

64 Pittsburgh, Pa. " Ready to be shipped to different parts of the 

country." P. 242. 
65,66,67 Pittsburgh, Pa. "The wonderful processes of turning iron 

into steel." P. 243. 

139 Chicago, 111. "Huge stone and brick structures from ten to 

twenty or more stories high." P. 247. 

140 Stock yards, Chicago. " At times there are several hundred thou- 

sand animals in the yards." P. 254. 
142, 153, 144 Chicago. " We follow the hogs." P. 256. 
201 Colorado. " The Garden of the Gods . . . filled with huge rock 

formations." P. 260. 
206 Arizona. " Great forests which have been turned into stone." 

P. 261. 
274 Canadian Rockies. " Glaciers more wonderful than those of the 

Alps." P. 261. 
208 Grand Canyon, Ariz. " He seems to be flying by mighty cities, 

dashing under huge forts, and past enormous cathedrals." 

P. 262. 

214 Mining camp, Nevada. "Towns have sprung up ... to accommo- 

date the minerg." P. 264. 

225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. " Threw the water against the sides 

of the hills." P. 265. 
203 Ouray, Col. "We shall then follow it to the mill." P. 266. 
186 Geneseo, Kan. " Where there is water, large herds of cattle can 

be pastured upon the high plains." P. 258. 
190 Idaho. " Great flocks of sheep." P. 283. 
212 Utah. " Salt Lake City. It lies in a valley, surrounded by 

mountains." P. 284. 
210 Phoenix, Ariz. " These deserts might be made to pay." P. 

290. 
237 San Gabriel Valley. " The oranges here seem even bigger and 

sweeter." P. 295. 
234 San Joaquin Co., Cal. " Orchards loaded with almonds." P. 295. 
236 Acampo, Cal. " Vineyards of the choicest grapes." P. 295. 

229 Yosemite Valley. " The biggest trees of the world." P. 301. 
228 Yosemite Valley. " Leaps over the rocks down into the valley." 

P. 304. 

230 San Francisco. " One of the largest and most prosperous of our 

cities." P. 306. 
224 Oregon. " Some of the biggest forests of the United States are 

to be found in the Pacific Northwest." P. 312. 
217, 216 Washington. " Some of the best timber in the world comes 

from this region." P. 312. 

215 Columbia River, Wash. " The long trees are cut into logs." 

P. 312. 

226 Columbia River, Ore. " Caught by nets and traps in great num- 

bers." P. 316. 



540 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

227 Astoria, Ore. " Canned and sent to all parts of the world." 

P. 317. 
219 Ranier National Park, Wash. " The grand white cone of Mount 

Tacoma." P. 318. 
195 Rocky Mt. Divide, Wyo. " Parts of which are covered with 

woods." P. 322. 

191 Yellowstone Park. " Full of natural wonders." P. 322. 

192 Yellowstone Park. " Falls into one semicircular basin after an- 

other." P. 322. 

193 Yellowstone Park. " Another fountain is always vomiting fortli 

masses of green, slimy mud mixed with sulphur." P. 323. 

194 Yellowstone Park. " Old Faithful sends up . . . an immense 

volume of steam and boiling water." P. 324. 
197 Yellowstone Park. " A fall . . . almost twice that of the Ameri- 
can Falls at Niagara and a gorge far more wonderful." P. 324. 
187 Butte, Mont. " The largest output of copper ... in the world." 

P. 326. 
204 Ute Indians, Col. Indians " now dress much like white people." 

P. 329. 
158 Hiawatha picture. "That is a papoose, or an Indian baby." 

P. 329. 
98 Pocahontas and John Smith. " Dangerous and cruel foes." 

P. 332. 
243 Chilkoot Pass. " Alaska has high mountains." P. 336. 
245 Placer mining, Alaska. " Millions of dollars' worth of gold are 

now being taken out of the sand and earth." P. 350. 

279 Labrador. "We meet . . . some Eskimos in furs." P. 354. 

2 Maine. " Moose hunting is by no means child's play." P. 356. 
278 St. John's, N. F. " The greatest cod-fishing grounds that have 
ever been known." P. 358. 

276 Mt. St. Donald, Canada. "We fly past glaciers." P. 364. 

277 Vancouver, B. C. " It owes its growth to . . . this excellent har- 

bor." P. 364. 
273 " Winnipeg is the capital of Manitoba." P. 366. 
267 Montreal, Can. " Immense cargoes of grain." P. 369. 

280 Mexico. " We land in Vera Cruz." P. 376. 

284 Mexico. " The farmers use the poorest of tools." P. 383. 

289 Yucatan, Mex. " It is henequen, or sisal hemp." P. 383. 

285 Making pulque, Mex. "The juice . . . turns into a beer." P. 384. 

282 Mexico City. " We see that the roofs are flat." P. 386. 

290 Mexicans. " The Mexicans are fond of music and they spend 

much time out of doors." P. 387. 

283 Mexico City. " Chapultepec, the great hill." P. 388. 

281 Mexico City. " Such slaves are known as peons." P. 389. 
292 Salvador, C. A. " The women are their own millers." P. 390. 

287 El Oro, Mex. " Much silver has come from Mexican mines." 

P. 391. 

288 Cholula, Mex. " Popocatepetl . . . which is visible from any part 

of Mexico City." P. 392- 



SOUTH AMERICA 541 

294 Costa Rica. "The chief market for the bananas is the United 

States." P. 394. 
247 Panama canal zone. " There are also India rubber trees." P. 398. 
131 Crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. " Smoked to harden it into cakes for 

the markets." P. 399. 

2. South America 

249 Colon, Panama. " See the palm trees shading the houses." P. 16. 

254 U. S. S. Missouri. " The canal was completed August 15, 1914." 

P. 20. 
251,250 Panama Canal. "Something of the great work Uncle Sam 

has accomplished in the construction of this mighty ditch." 

P. 21. 
253 Panama Canal. " That wall of green is the Gatun Dam." P. 23. 
252 Panama Canal. " The deck is soon high above the walls." P. 23. 

255 Hospital grounds, Panama. "The streets go uphill and down." 

P. 28. 

256 Panama. " A great bay which is guarded from the sea by green 

islands." P. 28. 
337 A street in a Colombian city. " White buildings covered with 

plaster." P. 31. 
336 Guayaquil, Venezuela. " There is not a chimney rising above any 

of the houses." P. 39. 

333 Near Lima. " Sugar cane is one of the chief crops of Peru." 

P. 54. 
332 Lima, Peru. " Many of the rich farmers use steam plows and 
harrows." P. 54. 

330 Peru. " We shall go there upon one of the steepest railroads of 

the world." P. 67. 

334 Peru. " The Andes of this region are noted for their mineral de- 

posits." P. 73. 

335 Bolivia. " The odd little animals which act as beasts of burden 

upon this highland." P. 75. 

331 Cuzco, Peru. " Ruins of the great temples which the Spaniards 

found in the days of Pizarro." P. 77. 
329 " Arequipa, one of the chief cities of Peru." P. 84. 

326 Chile. " Come to anchor in the Bay of Valparaiso." P. 109. 

327 Valparaiso, Chile. " They are loading and discharging goods." 

P. 111. 

323 Juncal, Chile. " We shall ride over the railroad to the top of the 

mountain." P. 119. 

321 Andean Foothills. " On one side we could see the pampas of 

Argentina." P. 122. 

322 Andes, Chile. " We must be satisfied with the magnificent views 

we have had as we rode through the pass. P. 122. 

324 Santiago, Chile. " That big building over there is the Cathedral." 

P. 128. 

328 Indians on Straits of Magellan. " The women let their hair grow 

so that it hangs down over their shoulders." P. 166. 



542 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

317 La Plata. " In these pastures is found the chief wealth of 
Argentina." P. 174. 

319 Argentina. " We enter a land of great vineyards." P. 183. 

320 Argentina. " Carts which have come in from the farms." P. 

186. 

314 Buenos Aires. " Just the point where steamers from Europe can 

most easily land their goods." P. 192. 

315 Buenos Aires. "The government house, where the President of 

Argentina has his offices." P. 196. 

316 Palermo, Argentina. " This park is one of the finest in all South 

America." P. 200. 

313 Montevideo, Uruguay. " Extensive harbor improvements have 
had to be made." P. 201. 

312 Montevideo, Uruguay. "We ride by . . . two-story and three- 
story houses, now passing great plazas, or squares, filled with 
trees." P. 205. 

309 Sao Paulo, Brazil. " One of the most enterprising cities of the 

republic." P. 255. 
308. Sao Paulo, Brazil. " It is more like one of our own towns than 
any South American place we have yet seen." P. 255. 

310 Sao Paulo, Brazil. " Great fields paved with cement, upon which 

the coffee beans are dried in the sun." P. 263. 

311 Sao Paulo, Brazil. "Ready for shipment." P. 266. 

307 Rio de Janeiro. " Covered with the rich green of the tropics." 
P. 267. 

305 Rio de Janeiro. " The main street is the Avenida Central." 

P. 274. 

306 Rio de Janeiro. " Rio has many rich citizens." P. 275. 

304 Bahia, Brazil. " These bluffs rise almost straight up from the 
water." P. 283. 

247 Rubber tree, Panama. " With a hatchet he makes a gash in the 
bark." P. 316. 

341 Caracas. " A little back from the seacoast is a nest in the moun- 
tains." P. 336. 

340 Venezuela. " Later on we visit the Caracas University." P. 340. 

3. Europe 

52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J. " Our ship is one of the greyhounds of 

the Atlantic." P. 12. 
25 New York City. " Past the tall buildings of lower New York." 

P. 13. 
374 Ireland. " We soon find ourselves at anchor in the harbor of 

Queenstown." P. 15. 
379 Kenmare, Ireland. " We do not wonder that the country is 
called the Emerald Isle." P. 16. 

376 Blarney Castle. " We try our best to kiss the famed Blarney 

Stone, set into the wall below." P. 23. 

377 Lakes of Killarney. "A picture wonderfully beautiful." P. 25. 



EUROPE 543 

378 Ireland. " ' Irish coal,' peat, is a spongy, vegetable matter which 
might be called half-grown coal." P. 25. 

380 Ireland. " Dublin is a magnificent city." P. 27. 

382 Giant's Causeway. " We see acres of huge stone columns rising 
out of the sea." P. 29. 

381 Ireland. "We find Belfast full of interest." P. 31. 

369 Scotland. " Through the scenes described in Sir Walter Scott's 
poem, ' The Lady of the Lake.' " P. 42. 

373 A Highland home. " All the Highlands of Scotland are beauti- 
ful." P. 42. 

367 Scotland. " We stop at Stirling to see the great castle." P. 
42. 

366 Highlanders. " At first we hardly know whether they are women 
or men." P. 43. 

365 Scotland. " We are delighted with Edinburgh." P. 44. 

366 The Great Forth Bridge. " An enormous structure of stone. 

iron, and steel, more than a mile and a half long." P. 45. 

372 Robert Burns. " We visit the cottage in which he was born." 
P. 46. 

358 England. " Some beautiful cattle." P. 50. 

357 England. " They are good farmers, and they have the best farm- 
ing tools." P. 50. 

347 Liverpool. " The magnificent stone docks which wall the banks 

of the Mersey for miles." P. 65. 

354 Stratford-on-Avon, Eng. " The house in which Shakespeare was 

born." P. 66. 

355 Shottery, Eng. " The cottage in which he courted Anne Hatha- 

way." P. 66. 

351 London. " That is the Bank of England, one of the most famous 

banks in the world." P. 71. 

349 The Tower of London. " A gloomy building on the banks of the 

Thames." P. 73. 

348 London Bridge. " The busiest of all the twenty bridges which 

cross the Thames in the city." P. 74. 

352 London. " Let us go into the House of Peers." P. 81. 

350 London. "We visit Westminster Abbey near by." P. 81. 

431 Nice, France. "Watch the women washing at that stream out- 
side the town." P. 92. 
429 France. " We spend some days at Marseilles." P. 100. 

421 Paris, France. " A vast network of cream-colored houses." 

P. 106. 

422 Champs Elysees, Paris. " We leave our carriage and walk down 

the avenue." P. 111. 

424 Paris, France. " Our eyes catch the roof of the Opera House, 

another magnificent structure." P. 112. 

423 Paris, France. " We stop at the flower market." P. 120. 

425 Paris, France. " Later on visit Notre Dame." P. 120. 

397 Namur. " We have left France and are traveling through Bel- 
gium." P. 125. 



544 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

395 Brussels, Belgium. " Its people can raise nearly all their own 
food." P. 127. 

399 Holland. " In many Dutch cities the canals form the principal 

streets." P. 138. 

403 Holland. " Notice how careful they are of the cattle." P. 140. 
402 Holland. "Did you ever see such shoes?" P. 142. 

400 Rotterdam. " Ship canals ... so that big vessels come into the 

cities to load and unload." P. 145. 

401 Holland. " What a lot of towns and villages there are scattered 

over the country." P. 147. 

406 Copenhagen, Denmark. " How clean the streets are ! " P. 158. 

404 Copenhagen, Denmark. " The buildings are chiefly of stone or 

light-colored brick with tiled roofs." P. 159. 

407 Norway. " The noise is made by that great volume of water 

dashing down into the fjord." P. 165. 

413 Lapland. "They milk the reindeer just as we milk our cows." 

P. 170. 

415 Spitzenbergen, Lapland. " Many ships are engaged in catching 

them for their oil and whalebone." P. 173. 

414 Lapland. " We look at our watches, and lo ! it is midnight." 

P. 175. 
412 Norway. " Ground into pulp to make printing paper." P. 178. 

408 Norway. " Racks of wood or wire at the sides of the fields." 

P. 179. 
410 Norway. " It is of the kind known as ' flat-brod ' which is used 
all over Norway." P. 179. 

409 Telemarken, Norway. " The women and girls make all the clothes 

of the family." P. 180. 
420 Goteborg, Sweden. " Its canal streets filled with shipping." 
P. 181. 

416 Stockholm, Sweden. " We cross at least two bridges every half 

mile." P. 182. 

417 Stockholm, Sweden. " This is the palace of the King of Sweden." 

P. 184. 

419 Sweden. " We see . . . many women and children at work in the 
fields." P. 185. 

386 Hamburg, Germany. " The chief outlet for Germany in its com- 
merce by sea with the rest of the world." P. 195. 

393 Cologne, Germany. " Early one morning we go to the market." 
P. 214. 

383 Berlin. " We visit the Reichstag building." P. 217. 

384 Berlin. "We go with our guide to the great palace of the em- 

peror." P. 218. 
388 Bavaria. " In some fields there are more women than men," 
P. 224. 



EUROPE 545 

390 Rudesheim, Germany. " We see vineyards everywhere, as we 

steam on up the river." P. 240. 

391 Germany. " Fair Bingen on the Rhine." P. 243. 

389 Germany. " Strassburg is especially noted for its cathedral and 
the great clock within it." P. 247. 

444 Switzerland. " There are silvery cascades, emerald meadows, and 

level uplands spotted with flowers." P. 251. 
448 Switzerland. " There are hotels everywhere." P. 252. 
441 Switzerland. " Much of the way is over dangerous paths." P. 254. 

446 Switzerland. " The views are indescribable." P. 254. 

427 France. " The best place to see them is in the valley of 

Chamouni." P. 256. 

428 France. " We are now in the midst of a wide, turbulent ice 

river." P. 256. 

440 Switzerland. " Go up the Rigi and other mountains by cog rail- 
roads." P. 259. 

443 Switzerland. " Carving things out of wood." P. 262. 

447 Switzerland. " He makes butter and cheese, sending some from 

time to time to the village." P. 266. 

445 Switzerland. " Almost all the houses are of wood, but they are 

comfortable, and many are very picturesque." P. 266. 

387 Germany. " We first go to Nuremberg." P. 273. 

460 Innsbruck, Austria. " The Alps extend ... on into Austria, be- 
ing then known as the Tyrol." P. 275. 

464 Budapest, Hungary. " We take a drive through the wide 
Andrassy Road." P. 299. 

467 Serbia. " At the junction of the Save and the Danube." P. 305. 

470 Roumania. " The Danube flows on and on." P. 308. 

468 Sofia, Bulgaria. " The people . . . seem to be more prosperous 

and more enterprising." P. 309. 

471 Roumania. " The Roumanians especially are a fine-looking race." 

P. 309. 

469 Bulgaria. "We end our journey on the Danube at Ruschuk." 

P. 309. 

488 Russian peasant. " The Russians are largely a nation of farmers." 

P. 320. 

482 Petrograd, Russia. " We again cross the Neva to visit the palaces 

and government departments." P. 338. 
481 Russia. " We make excursions north into Finland." P. 339. 
485 Poland. " Another trip takes us to Warsaw." P. 339. 

483 Moscow. " In the very center of the city is a great fortress or 

citadel known as the Kremlin." P. 347. 

484 Russia. " At Nizhni Novgorod, on the River Volga." P. 351. 

489 " The Strait of the Bosporus . . . winds in and out through a 

deep mountain valley." P. 361. 

472 Constantinople. " Let us walk over the bridge." P. 368. 

473 Constantinople. " The largest mosque of the world." P. 375. 



546 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

474 Constantinople. " We . . . are making our way through the city." 

P. 368. 

475 Athens " has many magnificent buildings of the purest white 

marble, and thousands of two, .three, and four-story houses of 
brick covered with stucco." P. 384. 

476 Athens. " There are palaces with gardens about them." P. 384. 
477, 478 Olympia, Greece. " We learn that scholars come here from 

all parts of the world to study the ruins of old Greece." P. 390. 
479 Greece. " Nearly all the farming is of the rudest description." 
P. 391. 

457 Venice, Italy. " You can step from your house right into your 

boat." P. 394. 

458 The Milan Cathedral " is a great Gothic structure, made of the 

purest white marble." P. 408. 
456 Florence. " We stroll along the River Arno, which flows through 
the town." P. 410. 

459 Lake Como. " The scenery is very beautiful." P. 410. 

450 Rome. " A bird's-eye view of the city." P. 412. 

451 Rome. " That mass of huge buildings, with the high dome above 

them, ... is Saint Peter's Cathedral, and the palace of the 
Vatican, where the Pope lives." P. 412. 

452 Rome. " All that is left of the Coliseum, the greatest show ground 

of all times." P. 413. 

453 Naples. " The most interesting thing about Naples ... is the 

great volcano outside." P. 421. 
433 Spain. " We have crossed the Mediterranean ... to Barcelona." 
P. 428. 

437 Spain. " How our train flies by orange groves." P. 429. 

438 Spain. "The roads are poor." P. 429. 

435 Madrid " is situated almost in the center of the plateau, with 

dreary plains reaching out for miles on every side." P. 437. 

436 Granada, Spain. " We explore the ruins of the Alhambra." 

P. 443. 

439 Gibraltar. " The enormous bare rock commanding the strait." 

P. 444. 

4. Asia 

534 Japan. " The cherry tree is cultivated for its blossoms." P. 24. 

525 Fuji-Yama, Japan. "A white mountain cone which hangs like a 

silver cloud on the western horizon." P. 25. 

526 Tokyo, Japan. " With the Japanese capital spread out before us." 

P. 36. 

535 Japan. "Did you ever see anything more beautiful?" P. 37. 

532 Japan. " There are crowds at the shops buying goods." P. 43. 
534 Japan. "The Japanese mother often goes about with the baby 

tied to her back." P. 50. 
531 Japan. " Have fish cooked in all sorts of ways." P. 55. 

533 Japan. " We have been wondering where we should sleep." P. 56. 
528 Rice fields, Japan. " And set out the young sprouts in the mud." 

P. 83. 



ASIA 547 

529 Rice fields, Japan. " The straw is then cut off close to the ground 

with a sickle." P. 83. 
527 Rice fields, Japan. " It is human muscle that makes man's bread." 

P. 84. 

536 Japan. " Another interesting occupation ... is the rearing of 

silkworms." P. 86. 

539 Japan. " The cocoons." P. 86. 

538 Japan. " The worms . . . fed upon mulberry leaves." P. 86. 

540 Japan. " Raw silk reeled from them." P. 86. 

537 Japan. " The country has many mulberry orchards." P. 86. 

541 Japan. " They now have also the finest of modern silk mills run 

by electricity." P. 87. 

523 Manchuria. " Boards sawed out by hand as they are needed." 

P. 91. 

542 Chosen. " Trotting along with a cartload of pottery tied to his 

back." P. 95. 

543 Chosen. " Korean porters . . . still carry much of the freight." 

P. 96. 

517 China. " The Yangtze . . . navigable for steam vessels for one 

thousand miles from its mouth." P. 111. 

515 China. " Railroads can be easily built." P. 112. 

519 China. "Swarming with yellow-skinned people." P. 115. 

518 China. "There are caravans of brown, woolly camels on their 

way to Mongolia." P. 114. 

516 Nanking, China. " The people are beginning to want modern 

roads." P. 120. 

521 Chif u, China. " Suppose we enter a store." P. 125. 

520 China. " We find all sorts of schools in Peking." P. 133. 

524 The Great Wall of China. " At last we reach the gate that leads 

through into Mongolia." P. 139. 
523 Manchuria. " Almost every kind of labor is still done by hand." 
P. 158. 

522 China. " In North China the plowing is done also with ponies 

and donkeys." P. 159. 
536 Silkworm incubator. " Within a few days the eggs hatch." P. 
168. 

538 Feeding silkworms. " As the worms grow older they are fed 

once an hour." P. 168. 

539 Cocoons. " Enveloped in a tightly wrapped silk shell or cocoon." 

P. 169. 

540 Reeling silk from cocoons. " The women and girls unwind the 

silk by means of rude machines." P. 169. 

513 Hongkong. " We land and take a ride through the city." P. 180. 

514 Canton. " Millions of Chinese are born, live, and die upon the 
water." P. 155. 



548 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

509 Burma. " Elephants at work." " They will take the timbers from 
the river and load them on the cars." P. 226. 

500 Calcutta, India. " There are buildings on both sides of the river." 

P. 249. 
499 Madras, India. " The chief seaport of southern Hindustan." 

P. 254. 
506 Kashmir, India. Cashmere shawls. " They are made by hand, by 

families who work at the trade from generation to generation." 

P. 271. 

502 Agra, India. The Taj Mahal. " Thought by travelers to be the 

most beautiful structure of the whole world." P. 274. 

503 Delhi, India. " We see temples and shrines almost everywhere." 

P. 276. 

501 Benares, India. "Tens of thousands of Hindus go every month 

to worship and bathe in the Ganges." P. 278. 

504 Jaipur, India. " One of the most picturesque crowds of men and 
. beasts to be found in the world." P. 288. 

505 Jaipur, India. " But look at the elephants ! " P. 289. 

508 Northern India. " They are the highest of all mountains." P. 
295. 

494 Syria. " We must pay a tribute to the chiefs, or sheiks, to keep 

their subjects from robbing us." P. 339. 
472 Constantinople. " Who lives at Constantinople in Europe." P. 
348. 

495 Palestine. " On the Mount of Olives outside Jerusalem." P. 352. 

496 Palestine. " Many Russian pilgrims on foot." P. 356. 

493 Syria. " Damascus is one of the oldest cities of the world." P. 

360. 
492 Syria. " The thriving Mediterranean port of Beirut." P. 360. 

497 Palestine. " Near each little town is a threshing floor upon which 

the grain is trodden out by oxen or donkeys." P. 361. 
544 Siberia. " We are traveling this morning on the great Trans- 
Siberian Railroad." P. 373. 

5. Africa 

25 New York. "Out through the harbor of New York, past Staten 
Island, and on into the Atlantic." P. 9. 
439 Spain. " In Gibraltar Bay under the frowning guns." P. 14. 

556 Algiers. " The harbor is full of vessels." P. 40. 

557 Tunis. " The city proper is almost surrounded by walls." P. 49. 
564 The Nile, Egypt. " The water is now conducted over all the 

farms possible." P. 86. 
569 Assuan Dam, Egypt. " Some of these dams are among the won- 
ders of the world." P. 87. 

562 Egypt. " We stop now and then to talk with the farmers." P. 88. 

563 Egypt. " The Egyptian cotton has a fiber which is very desirable 

for certain kinds of cloth." P. 92. 

558 Egypt. "We are now in Alexandria." P. 93. 

556 Algiers. "There are . . . turbancd sheiks on donkeys." P. 9$. 



AUSTRALIA 549 

560 Cairo. " We cross the Nile over a magnificent iron bridge 

guarded by bronze lions." P. 103. 

561 Egypt. " The Great Pyramid was once four hundred and eighty- 

two feet high." P. 104. 
565 Egypt. "No one knows just how old the Sphinx is nor why it 

was made." P. 106. 
568 Egypt. " Wonderful ruins ... at Karnak in Upper Egypt, in- 
cluding the remains of temples." P. 107. 
559 Suez Canal. " We take passage . . . for Suez, and are soon 

steaming along tbrough the desert." P. 112. 
572 Native market, Victoria Nyanza. " The natives are strange in the 

extreme." P. 136. 
570 Uganda. " The cloth comes from a stately tree with small green 

leaves." P. 142. 
572 Native market. " The tusks are a valuable article of commerce." 

P. 152. 
577 Rhodesia. " We meet some English hunters who have killed a 

hippopotamus." P. 182. 
572 Port Florence, Victoria Nyanza. " Suppose we visit a market 

and see how the Africans do business at home." P. 243. 

574 Dar-es-Salaam. " A little farther down the coast on a beautiful 

bay." P. 255. 
576 " The Victoria Falls are in many ways more wonderful than Ni- 
agara." P. 280. 

575 " The Cape to Cairo Railroad . . . crosses the Zambesi on one 

of the highest bridges of the world." P. 280. 

581 Kimberly, S. A. "A guide . . . takes us down into the works 

and shows us how diamonds are mined." P. 299. 

579 Johannesburg, S. A. Gold quartz mine. " Much of the rough 

work is done by Kaffirs, superintended by white men." P. 
309. 

582 Capetown. " Table Mountain . . . rises behind the town in a 

sheer precipice." P. 318. 

580 Crossing the Vaal, ■ S. A. " Huge wagons with long teams of 

oxen." P. 322. 



6. Australia, Our Colonies, and Other Islands of the Sea 

585 Sydney, Australia. " Sydney has several thousand acres of parks 
devoted to public amusements." P. 23. 

587 Melbourne. " Magnificent buildings of gray stone." P. 43. 

588 Kangaroos. " We see specimens of every kind in the zoological 

gardens." P. 47. 

589 Range sheep. " Queensland . . . has rich farms and pasture fields 

not far from the coast." P. 53. 
584 South Africa. " We see winged penguins." P. 68. 

590 Tasmania. " We are in Hobart ... in the Switzerland of Aus- 

tralia." P. 69. 



550 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — READING 

591 New Zealand. " Auckland lies on an isthmus at the foot of 
Mount Eden." P. 84. 

551 Philippine Islands. " The coconuts are gathered when they fall 

and the husks taken off." P. 125. 
260 Honolulu. " Schools as good as our own." P. 132. 
259 A scene in the Mauna Loa Valley. P. 145. 

546 Manila, P. I. " Huge barges, called ' cascos.' " P. 162. 

547 Manila, P. I. " The principal street of ' Old Manila,' the Walled 

City, where most of the officials have their offices." P. 164. 

549 Philippine Islands. The carabos " are strong, and can plow and 

harrow the muddy rice fields, where a horse or mule would 
sink through." Pp. 169, 179. 

550 Philippine Islands. Hulling rice. "After this the hulls must 

be pounded off with hard wooden pestles in a mortar made of 
a block of tough wood." P. 181. 

548 Philippine Islands. Mayon Volcano, " one of the most beautiful 

mountains of the Philippines." P. 192. 
553 Philippine Islands. Hemp " is made into all sorts of ropes from 
clotheslines to cables." P. 194. 

552 Philippine Islands. "The hemp plant looks just like a banana 

plant." " The hemp comes from the white inner leaves." P. 

195. 
512 Ceylon. "We pass Kling women . . . blazing with jewels." 

How the gems are ground. P. 261. 
511 Ceylon. "In the harbor of Colombo surrounded by ships from 

all parts of the world." P. 264. 
455 Palermo. " We spend some time in wandering about." P. 310. 

257 Porto Rico. " We find ourselves in front of San Juan." P. 329. 
302 Guadeloupe, F. W. I. Coffee pickers at work. P. 338. 

295 Havana docks. " Porto Rico raises some of the best coffee of 
the world." P. 338. 

258 Porto Rico. " In the great belt of sugar cane which almost en- 

circles Porto Rico." P. 342. 
301 Jamaica. " The island has great natural' resources." P. 353. 
299 Santiago, Cuba. " A city of white buildings, with roofs of red 

tiles." P. 362. 
298 Cuba. " There the same work is done by oxen." P. 367. 
297 " The stalks are now cut into sections of two leaves each, and the 

sections are hung on poles and carried to the drying sheds." 

P. 369. 
343 Greenland. Eskimo girls. P. 377. 



45. SOME THINGS WE EAT; SOME 
THINGS WE WEAR 

By WILLIAM M. GREGORY 

CURATOR OF EDUCATION MUSEUM, CLEVELA.ND, OHIO 

This selection of views from the Keystone " 600 Set " 
has been made to supply teachers with dynamic material for 
the use of elementary pupils. Every modern course of study 
includes progressive plans for the teaching of the basal facts 
relating to our food and clothing. It is the aim of this col- 
lection of views to make real and vivid these elementary ideas 
of life. To give your pupils a live keen interest in these 
common needs of life, the views have been grouped under the 
two headings of " Some Things We Eat " and " Some 
Things We Wear." 

Let all teachers fully realize that mere word or definition 
teaching is useless. Schools are to supply children with ideas 
and ideals ; these to be useful must be based upon facts that 
are gathered by the pupils. It is the business of the modern 
school to supply the materials for observation. We must have 
stereographs, specimens, excursions, word pictures and many 
other devices. 

In the study of our food and clothing, it is very necessary 
that children fully realize the actual conditions under which 
we live and how we are almost wholly dependent upon many 
different people to supply our many needs. It is impossible 
to take pupils to all the countries where foods are grown or 
clothing is made. Likewise there is a limit to the actual 
specimens that can be wisely used in a classroom and the 
raw materials give to children no impressions of the produc- 
ing countries — hence, the great value of this series of stereo- 
scopic views that makes each pupil feel as if he were in the 
scene pictured. The stereograph requires and stimulates real 
observation by the pupil. It arouses his interest and gives 
real ideas that form a definite background for clear concepts. 

55i 



552 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT 



I. SOME THINGS WE EAT 
Fruits 

175 Apples. These apples are large and hard ; they will keep until after 
Christmas. The barrels are filled and then nailed tight. They 
are then ready to be shipped a long distance on the train. 

294 Luscious bananas. All bananas grow in the hot belt where the 
days are very warm and there is much rain. The bananas are 
green and solid when picked. They can be shipped a long dis- 
tance and they turn a beautiful golden yellow if kept in a dark 
cool place until ripe. 

236 Tokay grapes. Some of these California grapes are shipped to us 

for use as fresh fruit. Most of the grapes, however, are made 
into wines and raisins. The grapes are laid on trays in the 
hot sunshine and in a few days they have shriveled up; they 
are soon packed into boxes and shipped to various parts of the 
country. 
47 Fine muskmelons. This fruit is common in our gardens for the 
muskmelons g'row in nearly all parts of the United States. The 
cantaloupe is a species of muskmelon. 

437 Oranges in Spain. All of the orange trees of the United States 
have been grown from sprouts and seeds that came from Spain. 
We do not import into this country any large number of oranges 
from Spain ; for our California and Florida oranges are superior 
and cheaper. 

238 Orange fruit and blossoms. Here is a cluster of beautiful orange 
blossoms with the golden fruit ready to pick. 

237 Orange grove. We are looking at a grove of more than 50,000 

orange trees in California. These orange trees are on irrigated 
lands, which means that the trees live upon water which is 
brought to them in small ditches. 
85 Peaches. We cannot eat all this fruit when it is ripe and it will 
soon spoil. Some of the peaches mother will put in glass cans 
at home and then in the winter we will have peaches for sauce 
and pies. Many of the peaches are canned in tin cans in large 
factories. 
108 The pineapple grows only in warm climates. It grows well in 
Florida, California and the Hawaiian Islands. The fruit is 
carefully gathered, packed and placed on a fast freight train 
and soon reaches our home where it is mainly used as dessert. 

Oatmeal, Corn Flakes and Crackers 

147 Hauling oats. After the oats are threshed, the grain is sent to a 
mill and ground or rolled flat. Then we buy the oatmeal or 
rolled oats at the store and when it is properly cooked, sweet- 
ened with a little sugar and covered with cream, it makes a de- 
licious breakfast. 

136 Cutting corn. If it were not for the use of such machines as this 



MILK — BREAD AND BUTTER 553 

it would be almost impossible to harvest our great corn crop. 
Corn is used as a food in several different ways such as corn 
meal mush, corn bread, corn cakes, toasted corn flakes, etc. 
357 Harvesting wheat. Wheat flour is used for making pies, cakes, 
crackers, etc. Graham crackers are made from unbolted wheat 
flour. 

Vegetables 

375 Cabbage, potatoes, turnips and other vegetables are good and 
healthful food. 

Milk 

57 Milking the cows. The nice rich milk that all children love to 
drink and to eat with their porridge comes from the dairy cow. 
This is a fine dairy in which everything is kept very clean and 
sweet. 
46 Bottling pure milk for the children in the city. After milking 
the cows, the milk is taken to a large room where it is care- 
fully strained of all impurities and then it is sometimes pas- 
teurized. This means that it is slowly heated to a certain tem- 
perature and cooled. This renders the milk less liable to spoil 
or to sour. Nearly all cities require milk to be placed in clean 
bottles which are sealed at the dairy. 

411 Milking goats in Norway. You remember the story of Heidi 
where the goat supplied her people with milk and cheese and it 
is the same in the country of Norway where the people depend 
upon the goat to furnish them milk. 

413 Laplanders milking reindeer in Norway. 

396 Dog cart for peddling milk in Belgium. In the place of peddling 
the milk in bottles, the Belgians have a dog draw the cart holding 
the milkcan to the customer's door, and there they measure 
out the milk with the little measuring cup on the front of the 
cart. 

487 The girls are selling jars of fresh milk in Russia. It looks like 
a heavy load. It would seem that the milk in these open jars 
would gather dirt and other impurities. 

339 Selling milk unadulterated in a hot country. 

Bread and Butter 

Wheat 

357 Wheat is our staff of life or our most important food. No meal 
is complete without bread. Wheat bread is the most common 
in the United States. In the prairie plains a single farm may 
have a thousand acres in a great field of wheat. 

177 Threshing wheat. This machine cleans the grain of its chaff and 
straw and then we say that the grain has been threshed. The 
grain is next taken to the railroad station and shipped to the 
great mills which grind it into flour. Minneapolis on the Mis- 
sissippi River in Minnesota has the largest flour mills in the 
world. 

498 Grinding wheat in the oldest kind of a mill. They seldom grind 
more than enough flour for one day. The flour made in this 



554 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT 

way is coarse and dark colored and not as white and clean as 
the flour which is made in the mills of the United States. 

Butter 
45 Butter enough for 4,000 loaves of bread. Butter is made from the 
fat which is found in milk. 
341 Selling bread in South America. In this South American city the 
bread is baked in very crude ovens, piled into a barrel and car- 
ried through the streets on the back of a donkey. Compare 
with one of our large city bakeries. 

Corn 

184 Corn field. Observe how high this corn grows. Corn is the 
world's greatest crop and is used for food in many different 
ways. 

292 Making corn tortilla. The tortilla (tor-te'lya) is the kind of bread 
that is eaten by many children in Mexico and South America. 

Barley 

199 Harvesting barley in Colorado. 

566 A barley field in Egypt. 

410 A curious kind of bread. This is the Norwegian bread that has 
been made of water and barley flour rolled very thin and baked 
on a hot stove. Sometimes they make enough of this bread to 
last several months. 

Some Drinks for All the Family 

Chocolate and Cocoa 
303 This is the chocolate or cacao tree. The seeds are taken out of 
the pods and carefully dried. They are packed in bags and 
shipped to England, Holland and the United States. There 
they are ground very fine and made into chocolate and cocoa. 
A very fine drink for children. 

Coffee 
302 Picking the red cherry-like coffee berries. This tree is growing 
in the shade of a banana plant. The berries that the woman 
picks are put into a little sack that she carries. 

310 Coffee drying in Brazil. Each berry looks like a fine ripe red 

cherry and at the coffee house, usually near the center of the 
plantation, the outer red part is removed and the coffee is spread 
out on these smooth cement floors to dry. 

311 Carts carrying coffee to the railroad. At the railroad station the 

coffee is loaded onto the train, which takes it to some great city 
of South America on the ocean. The city Santos ships the most 
of the coffee of the world. 
295 Loading sacks of coffee on ships. This coffee is not ready to use 
for it must be roasted and carefully ground. Children should 
not drink coffee. 



TEA — SUGAR 555 

Tea 

530 Tea is from the tender leaves of bushes that are cultivated in large 
plantations in Japan, China and India. This girl is protected 
from the hot sun by a very cool and comfortable rice straw hat. 
When she has picked a basket full, it is taken to a tea house at 
the edge of the plantation and carefully treated to give it a fine 
flavor. The tea is packed in boxes and sent to some of the 
cities which ship the tea to our country. 

521 This is a large Chinese tea store. Some tea is made from the 
tender little buds of the tea plant and it is flavored with orange 
blossoms. This tea is highly prized and is served by the Chinese 
only at a Wedding. 

534 Tea house. In many places in the far away country of Japan 
they have little buildings like this one for travelers to stop at 
and drink a cup of tea. 

373 Drinking tea in Scotland. Tea is a drink very refreshing for 
grown people and I trust that you often play tea-party but never 
drink the strong tea. Milk is the best drink for children. 

Sugar 

198 A sugar beet field in Colorado. Much of our sugar comes from 
fields like these in Colorado, California and Michigan. 

419 Sugar beets in Sweden. Many other countries besides our own 
raise sugar beets. In all of the sugar beet fields you will find 
many boys and girls working with their fathers and mothers ; 
for many people are required to keep the weeds out of the 
sugar beets. 

270 A pile of sugar beets that will make two thousand barrels of sugar. 

In no country in the 'vorld do the people eat as much sugar as 
we do. What feasts we have with pies, cake and candy ! 

271 Stream of juice m^de from sugar beets. Now the water will be 

separated from this juice and the fine white sugar obtained. 
35 Sugar is packed in barrels and bags. Granulated sugar is made 

from either sugar cane or sugar beets. 
34 Making loaf sugar. When this loaf sugar is dried, it is carried 

on this moving belt we see to a part of the factory where it is 

packed into boxes and shipped to the stores. 
258 Cutting sugar cane. In warm countries like Louisiana, Cuba, 'and 

the Hawaiian Islands, sugar is obtained from the sugar cane. 

This is planted and harvested much like corn. The stalks of the 

sugar cane are crushed in the mill and the sweet juice makes the 

coarse brown or the white sugar. Granulated sugar is made 

from either sugar cane or sugar beets. 
130 Tapping a maple sugar tree. The sap of the maple tree is used 

to make the delicious maple syrup and sugar. 



556 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT 

Meats 
Beef 

185 Fat cattle for beef. They are ready to be shipped in cattle cars 
across the country to some of the cities in which are great 
slaughter and packing houses. 

140 This is a great stock market in Chicago, the largest in the 

world. The cattle are unloaded into these yards or pens and 
the buyers look them over very carefully. The finest and 
fattest are bought and taken to the great slaughter houses 
that are nearby. In Chicago as many as 5,000 cattle may be 
made into beef in a single day. 

141 The last process in dressing beef. The packing house is very 

clean and neat. Every part of the animal is used, the meat 
for food, the bones for combs, the hair for plaster, the hide 
for leather, the hoofs for glue and many other useful things. 
Most of the meat that we buy at the butcher s,hop was 
shipped to us in refrigerator cars. 

Pork 

183 The meat of the pig makes pork. It comes to our homes either 
fresh, as pork chops and sausage, or salted and smoked, as 
hams and bacon. 

142 Cutting up pigs. All parts of the hog are used, the bristles for 

brushes, the hide for gloves, the bones for knife handles, the 
fat for lard, the hams and bacon for smoked meat. Each day 
a whole train of refrigerator meat cars leaves Chicago and 
goes to the great eastern cities to supply them with meat. 

143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling. 

144 Making link sausage of pork. 

Mutton 

173 Sheep come to our tables as lamb or mutton. These meats are 
considered more delicate than either beef or pork but not so 
strengthening. 

190 In the mountain valleys of Idaho and other Western states are 
great flocks of sheep, sometimes containing thousands of ani- 
mals. In the fall they are shipped to the packing houses in 
Omaha, Kansas City or Chicago. 

480, 589 Sheep are raised in all parts of the world and their meat is 
valued everywhere. 

Fozvls and Eggs 

375, 56 Chickens. In every continent chickens are raised for eggs and 
meat. Of course the chickens that are carefully cared for are 
better for both purposes. 

338 The boy in the foreground is carrying a pet chicken in his arms. 



FISH — SALT — VEGETABLES 557 

It is very probably a game chicken, highly prized among all 
Latin Americans. 
216 Geese also are raised for their eggs and meat. The eggs are 
large in size. The grease or fat is fried out and used in cook- 
ing in place of lard. Goose feathers, too, are very valuable. 

Game 

2, 72, 189 Men are very fond of game, as the flesh of wild birds and 
animals is called. Game must be hunted and state laws allow 
wild animals to be killed only at certain times of year. 

Fish and Oysters 

226 Fine fresh salmon just caught. This fish has a firm pink flesh 

and it is considered one of our finest. 

227 Chinese preparing salmon for canning. The fish are cut into 

slices that just fit a can and after the can is filled it is put into 
boiling water or steam chests which cooks the fish. The cans 
are carefully sealed and shipped to all parts of the world. 
244 The salmon being dried by Indians. The dried fish is stored 
away for use in the long cold winter. 

13 Drying codfish. The cod is caught in the ocean waters from 
Massachusetts north to Greenland. It is a fine fish to eat 
when fresh from the water. The codfish is also salted and 
dried in large quantities. The dry fish are packed into boxes 
and shipped to all parts of the world. 
531 Drying sardines. In Japan very small fish are caught in nets 
and dried in the sun. These little fish are boiled in oil and 
packed in little cans and sold as sardines. 

86 The oyster is an animal that lives in a two part shell in the 
ocean. Along our Atlantic coast and in the Chesapeake Bay 
are many oyster beds. They are scooped up from the bottom 
of the ocean. The oyster boat carries them to a market where 
they are sold to a packing company. These women are em- 
ployed by the company to remove the shells from the oys- 
ters before they are packed and shipped. 

Salt 

42 Making salt. How flat our food tastes without salt! The men 
are collecting the white salt that has been made from salt 
water or brine. The salt brine is pumped to the surface 
through pipes that go deep into the earth. 
153 Packing salt into barrels. The salt is stored in sheds and looks 
like great piles of snow. It is ground fine and shoveled into 
barrels to be shipped to the grocery stores. 

Vegetables 

83 Children learning how to grow vegetables. 

166 Potatoes are almost as necessary to us as wheat. They are dug by 
the machines drawn by the horses. The men are picking up the 



55S FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE EAT 

potatoes which are soon to be loaded on the cars to be shipped to 
people living in the city. 

149 Celery. Near Kalamazoo in Michigan many acres are planted 
with celery. You see how it grows in long rows. Why the 
boards? 
7, 375 A vegetable market. This is the place where the vegetables 
raised on the farms are shipped and sold to the people. On 
some of the wagons you can see boxes of potatoes, crates of 
celery, barrels of apples and other things to eat. 

105 Growing rice in the United States. Rice is being much used as 
a vegetable. One pound of rice is said to contain as much 
nourishment as four pounds of potatoes. In the southern part 
of the United States we grow rice but only a small part of 
what we use. Most of the rice we eat comes from Japan, 
India and China. 

528 Planting rice in Japan. Rice is the food of nearly one-half the 

people of the world. In Japan the rice fields are small and 

flooded with water as you can see. 
527 Threshing rice in Japan. Most of the rice we use is grown in 

these fields in Japan. India and China also grow rice. 
550 Preparing rice for food in the old way. In this country we 

send the rice to a mill where the grains are polished white. 

This destroys much of the food value. 

Pudding, Pies and Nuts 

529 Most of the rice we use in pudding and in various other ways 

is grown in Japan. Rice grows to about the same height as 
our wheat. 

137 We all like pumpkin pie. There are many wagon loads of shin- 
ing yellow pumpkins in this field. I would like to have this 
large one nearest us for a Jack-o'-lantern and I could carry one 
other for making pies. 

175 Apple pie is our most common pie. 

85 Peach pie is a treat and in this peach orchard are fine trees just 
loaded with the luscious fruit. This man may be picking some 
for pies or peaches and cream. 

234 Almonds are easy to crack and the meats are sweet. These 
nuts grow in California, Texas, etc. When the nuts are ripe 
a canvas is spread on the ground and long poles used to 
knock off the nuts. 

118 The peanut is the favorite nut of children and very few of them 
know that it grows in the ground like the potato. It grows 
best in the warm climate of our southern states. When the 
peanut is roasted it is ready to eat or to be ground fine for 
peanut butter. 



COTTON — LINEN 559 

II. SOME THINGS WE WEAR 

Some Queer Clothing 

204, 98, 158, 168, 211 Indian Costumes. 

490 Skins used for coats, hats and shoes. 

246 Warm fur caps and coats in Alaska. 

328 These Indians of southern South America wrap the skins of 

animals about themselves iv the same way as we use blankets. 
343 Eskimos wearing Teg moccasins of fine furs. 
290 Big straw hats, decorated coats, and colored scarfs. 
402 Dutch children wearing wooden shoes and queer caps. 
465 The girls wear shawls for hats and the boys wear decorated 

trousers. 
519 The padded coats of the Chinese are warm. 
592 Savage people of warm climates wear little clothing. 
572 Native Africans wear little clothing. 
570 The man peeling the bark from the tree is wearing cloth made 

out of bark. 

Cotton 

207 Fields must be kept free from weeds while the cotton plants are 

growing. 
117 Picking cotton, the most widely used of any fiber. The cotton 

is picked from September to Christmas. Many colored people 

help to pick the fluffy balls of cotton. 

124 The cotton is hauled to the gin. After the cotton is picked the 

seeds must be separated from the fiber. The small seeds con- 
tain oil which is pressed out and sold for cooking and many 
other purposes. 

125 The cotton gin was invented in this country for it was very slow 

work to separate the seeds and fibers by hand. The white 
fibers are packed into bales each weighing about 500 pounds, 
and then are ready to be shipped to the cotton mills. 
119 The 500 pound cotton bales on the docks. New Orleans is a 
city on the Mississippi River that buys much of the cotton 
from the plantations. It is then shipped all over the world. 
286 Carding room, cotton mills, Arizaba, Mexico. 

14 Spinning cotton yarn. When the bales of cotton reach the mill, 
the cotton is cleaned, combed and spun into yarn. The cot- 
ton yarn is twisted into a hard thread and wound on the hun- 
dreds of spools or spindles which are seen in this room. 

16 Printing the design on the cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is made 
plain white or it may be printed in many designs of checks, 
bars, flowers, etc. 

Linen 

268 Preparing flax for making linen. The flax plant grows like 

wheat. From the straw is obtained these fine white fibers. 
The fibers are spun into thread which is wound from the 
large skeins upon small spindles for weaving. 

269 Weaving linen cloth. The threads from the many spindles are 



560 FOR LITTLE FOLKS — THINGS WE WEAR 

woven by the machine into the fine linen cloth. Linen is 
stronger and more durable than cotton, but more expensive. 
Name the different articles made from linen. 
40 Making fine linen collars, Troy, N. Y. 

Wool 

173, 589 Sheep that furnish wool for your clothing. Wool is used 
to make underwear, caps, mittens, suits and many other gar- 
ments. 

145 Shearing sheep with power driven shears. 

17 Sorting wool after cleaning and washing. 

18 Spinning yarn in a woolen mill. The woolen fibers must be 

twisted and pulled together into thread and yarn. Many ma- 
chines are busy preparing the yarn and thread for making into 
cloth on the noisy looms. 

409 Spinning woolen yarn. The woman at the right is combing the 
wool and filling the basket with it. The woman at the spin- 
ning wheel is twisting and drawing the wool into yarn. What 
can be made from the yarn in the balls? 

506 These people show us how cloth is made from wool. The yarn 
is made by the person at the small wheel. This yarn is used 
on the loom where it is woven into cloth. This way of mak- 
ing cloth is much more simple than in the great factories that 
are filled with noisy machines. 

Silk 

536 Silkworm incubator in Japan. In Japan the people raise the 

silkworm so that they may have the fine fiber that it spins. 
The worms are hatched from very small eggs. 

537 Gathering mulberry leaves for the silkworms. 

538 The young girl keeps the silkworms supplied with fresh leaves 

so that they will grow rapidly. 

539 The cocoons or nests. The worm makes a silken thread and 

weaves it into a small soft nest. The cocoons are collected 
and the worms killed by being exposed to the sun or by steam 
or heated air. 

540 The silk thread is unwound from the cocoon and the raw silk is 

then ready to go to the factory. 

541 One of Japan's largest silk weaving plants. 

22 Sorting and weighing the skeins of raw silk in Connecticut. 

Raw silk is received from many different countries, especially 

Japan, China and Italy. 
24 Working in a silk mill. The silk fibers must be twisted and 

spun into yarn and thread. After leaving this room the silk 

thread is ready to be made into the cloth. 
55 Making fine silk ribbons. The silk thread is used to make cloth 

for fine dresses, and the bright colored ribbons you see. 



SHOES — RUBBER BOOTS — JEWELRY 561 

Shoes 

272 Making leather out of the hides of animals. 

11 Cutting leather into the required shapes for shoes. Years ago 

our shoes were made by one man called a cobbler. In a mod- 
ern factory all of the parts for thousands of shoes are cut 
out. 
41 Sewing together the parts of a shoe. The sewing is done on 
machines run by electricity and operated by many young ladies 
who are very skillful. 

12 A machine that shapes the shoe. So many machines are used 

and the men are so skillful that more than 10,000 pairs of 
shoes are made in a single day in some of the great shoe fac- 
tories in Lynn or Brockton in Massachusetts. 
532 A Japanese shoe shop. These people wear quite a different shoe 
from ours. It is made of a wooden board and fastened to the 
foot by a heavy rope of rice straw. Some of these Japanese 
clogs, as they call their shoes, have an upper part of cloth or 
rice straw. These shoes sell for from five to ten cents per pair. 

Rubber Boots 

247 The wonderful rubber tree. The milk or sap of the tree flows 
from the cuts and it is from this sap that our rubber is made. 

131 Crude rubber gathered from many countries. Name five differ- 
ent articles made from rubber. 

133 Making rubber boots. The rubber is heated, colored and rolled 
out into sheets. In this large room the rubber boot is put to- 
gether. When we wear our next pair of rubbers let us try 
to imagine a story of their travels. 
75 Rubber boots are needed by these miners. 

227 Chinese wearing rubber boots to keep feet dry. 

Jewelry and Fine Ornaments 

21 Making fine jewelry. This factory is in Rhode Island and the 
gold and precious stones used here come from many parts of 
the world. 

512 Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, etc., Ceylon. 

581 Mining diamonds in South Africa. They are found in this clay. 

245 Gold is sometimes found in the sand of creeks. 

579 Gold mining in Africa. 

334 Refining silver in smelter, Peru, S. A. 

573 Ivory ready for shipping. Ivory is used in many ways for orna- 
ments. (See 509, 510 for elephants.) 



46. HOME GEOGRAPHY 

By R. H. WHITBECK, A.B. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. EDITOR 
" JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY " 

Home geography is the study of the region surrounding the 
home. It is based upon first hand observation by the pupils. 
If the study is carried no farther than the observation of the 
home region, the full purpose of home geography will not be 
achieved. In America, home geography means the study of 
various types of things which belong to geography and which 
are observable in the home region. By means of directed 
observation of the things which are around the pupils, certain 
fundamental concepts are built up ; for example — the purpose 
of a home, the need of home industries for supplying our 
wants, the purpose of clothing and how the materials for 
clothes are obtained ; and an understanding of simple indus- 
tries ; trade, travel, and transportations. Nearly every pupil 
is able to observe some of these fundamental things in his 
home environment, thus obtaining the vivid concepts which 
only observation can produce. 

But the pupil will find less interest in this study and will 
see less purpose in it, if his studies do not reach out to things 
beyond his home, but which are closely related to things ob- 
servable at home. It is here that the photograph plays a 
highly important part. Manifestly pupils cannot obtain cor- 
rect notions of homes in general by observing simply the kind 
of homes in which they or their neighbors live; but by means 
of the stereograph they may be introduced to homes in many 
parts of the world and may thus obtain not simply special 
concepts but general concepts. By means of the stereograph 
pupils may see homes in the Frigid Zone, in the Temperate 
Zone, in the desert, in the hot countries, in city, village, and 
country. 

The stereograph becomes an invaluable supplement to the 
textbook, for nothing except seeing the actual thing is more 

562 



TYPES OF HOMES 563 

impressive than seeing an excellent picture, and especially a 
picture which brings out scenes in real perspective, as does 
the stereograph. 

By studying the simpler industries of his home region and 
then by examining stereographs of selected industries in other 
parts of the world the general notion of why and how people 
are employed in various countries is obtained. The same 
idea is carried out with respect to each of the other funda- 
mental notions belonging to home geography. If circum- 
stances permit, home geography includes the study of rock 
weathering, soil, stream erosion, and deposition and the ob- 
servation of as many kinds of land forms and waters as the 
home region supplies. It is in fact a study of the geographical 
environment, not only for itself but also as a means of ap- 
preciating many geographical facts which are not directly ob- 
servable. 

In harmony with the needs of presenting Home Geography 
to the younger pupils, only a limited selection of geographical 
scenes has been made. For a more extended selection of geo- 
graphical scenes see the group of classifications assembled un- 
der the heading of Geography. 

I. TYPES OF HOMES 
A. SIMPLE HOMES 

359 Home of the nightingale. Consider kinds of homes built by birds 
and animals. Why do they have homes? 

205 Ruined homes of the cliff dwellers. Consider why these people 
built their homes in such places. 

211 Homes of Indians, a pueblo. 

281 A lowly home in Old Mexico. What is adobe and why is it used? 

546 Floating homes in the Philippine Islands. Could they be used in 
our climate? 

373 A Scotch Highland home. Of what is it made? 

445 A home in the Swiss Mountains. How does it differ from the 
Highlander's house in view 373 ? 

533 The neat and simple interior of a Japanese home. Why do the 
Japanese have less furniture than we? 

409 Country homes in bleak Norway. 

411 Compare with home life in America. 

401, 402 Little homes in Holland, land of canals and windmills. 

214 Miners' homes in Nevada. Why are they built in such an unat- 
tractive place? 

517 A group of homes in China. 



564 HOME GEOGRAPHY 



B. HISTORIC HOMES 

355 Anne Hathaway's cottage in England. Why should this cottage 
be preserved so many years? 

354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare in England. Who was Wil- 
liam Shakespeare? 

362 Home of the poet, Wordsworth, in England. Read Wordsworth's 
beautiful poem, " The Daffodils." 

372 Birthplace of Robert Burns in Scotland. Do you know anything 
about Robert Burns? 

463 Carlstein Castle, Bohemia. 
9 Longfellow's home in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Do you know 
any poem written by Longfellow? 

113 Log cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born. This cabin is now 
enclosed by a larger building which protects it. Why is such a 
poor cabin so carefully preserved? 
96 Washington's home at Mount Vernon, Virginia. Compare this 
with Lincoln's home in the previous scene. For a more com- 
plete list of homes see classification Children of the World in- 
cluding Home Life. 

II. THE CITY HOME 

Starting from his own home, its materials, life etc., the child will 
see homes centered about mills, factories, stores, banks and offices. He 
will see the materials for work and living brought in and will trace 
them to their sources, at the same time showing what the city does in 
return. 

A. KINDS OF HOMES IN CITIES 

90, 93, 121, 212, 220 Here we have general views of cities where land 
is very valuable and people live crowded together. 
455 There are tenement homes in all the large cities of the world. 
This picture could very well have been taken in New York or 
Chicago or any of our large cities. 
9, 10, 37 Farther out from the business parts of a city are homes 
with yards and even gardens. Here are the pleasantest places 
to live. 
83 City people often can have little gardens which are both pleasant 
and profitable. 

B. BUILDING MATERIALS 

i. Wood 

9, 10, 147, 236 These homes are made of wood brought from the 
forests. Usually there are city ordinances forbidding the use of 
wood as a building material in the crowded parts of the city. 
Why? 

224 Cutting a great tree in an Oregon forest. 

586 Great forest of Eucalyptus trees. 



THE CITY HOME 565 

1 Logs piled on a stream bank in Maine. Why are the logs piled 
on the bank of the stream and what will these logs be used for? 
162 Hauling logs in a Minnesota forest. Would this method of haul- 
ing logs be employed in the South? 

215 A log raft on the Columbia River. Why are the logs moved by 

this method? 

216 A great sawmill in Washington. 

523 Sawing lumber in northern China. Why are such laborious 
methods used in China? 

2. Stone 

3, 4, 45, 37 Stone is a splendid building material as it lasts prac- 
tically forever. Stone must be taken out of the ground and 
usually is expensive. 

3. Brick 

121, 212 Very many of our homes are made of brick. It is more 
durable than wood and less expensive than stone. 

C. STREETS 

6,8,31,266,273,331,340,464,474 Consider reasons for paved streets, 
street sweepers, broad sidewalks, street cars, and lights. Why 
not so necessary in a village or in the country? 

7, 31, 139, 230, 273, 315, 373, 380, 587 Street cars, elevated railroads and 
automobiles make it possible for people who must work in 
cities to live out where it is cleaner, healthier, and pleasanter 
and where they can have yards and gardens. 

D. FOOD 

People who live in the city depend absolutely upon the country for 
their food. 

57,46,159,165,339,396,403,411,413,487 Milk is one of the most im- 
portant of foods and milk must be brought from the country. 
Notice the different methods of caring for milk. 

45 Butter too must come from the country and should be made under 
the most sanitary conditions. 

56 Eggs and chickens are of the highest importance as food. They 

are shipped to the cities by millions. 
127,159,172,183,185,186,190,301,480,589 No city produces its own 
meat. All the city can do is to prepare it for use and provide 
cold storage. 

47, 83, 149 Market gardens near great cities supply them with fresh 
vegetables. Quick and cheap transportation gives fresh vege- 
tables nearly all the year round. 

85, 108, 175, 235, 236, 237, 238, 294, 551 Transportation is such now that 

the whole world sends fruit to our cities. 
302,310,311,303,530 Coffee, cocoa and tea are found on the table of 
nearly every city home. They are prepared for use and dis- 
tribution in our cities. 



566 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

166 The potato is a staple article of food. 

136, 146, 147, 177, 199, 218, 357, 408 The grain fields furnish the bread, 
our staff of life. Oat meal and corn meal are used almost uni- 
versally and every baker's shop sells rye bread as well as wheat 
bread. 

104, 105, 527, 528, 529, 549 Rice has much the same food value as the 
potato and can readily be used instead. People like to eat what 
they are accustomed to eating; so people in American cities do 
not change easily to rice when wheat and potatoes are scarce. 
It is amusing to learn that people in Hong Kong or Yokohama 
are no better satisfied with our grains and potatoes when rice is 
scarce. 
13,86,226,227,278,481,531 Cities are often well supplied with fresh 

fish and oysters from the rivers, lakes or seas. 
34,35,130,198,258,270,271,419,332,333 Sugar comes to us from re- 
fineries in cities but they must get their raw material from the 
farms. 

E. CLOTHES 

Almost all the clothes we wear, whether of cloth or leather, are city 
products; the textile mills and the tanneries get their raw material from 
the country. 

i. Cotton 

207 Cultivating a field of cotton, Arizona. 

117 Picking cotton in Mississippi. From what part of the cotton plant 

is cotton obtained? 
124 Hauling cotton to the cotton gin. What is a cotton gin? 
119 Bales of cotton at the wharf in New Orleans. Why is the cotton 

baled? 
14 A cotton mill in Mississippi. What is meant by spinning cotton? 

2. Wool 

589 Sheep in Australia. 

480 A flock of sheep in Greece. 

17 Sorting wool in a Massachusetts woolen mill. 

18 Spinning wool in great factories. 

81 What process follows spinning in making woolen cloth? 

3. Linen 

268 Preparing to make linen cloth. 

269 Weaving linen. For what purpose is linen cloth preferred to cot- 

ton or wool? 

4. Silk 

537 Gathering mulberry leaves in Japan. What are the mulberry 

leaves used for? 

538 Tending the silk worms in Japan. 

539 Silk cocoons. What are the cocoons and how are they made? 

540 Reeling silk from cocoons. 

541 Weaving silk cloth in Japan. 



THE CITY HOME 567 

55 Weaving ribbons in New Jersey. 
22 Skeins of silk. 

5. Leather 

186 Cattle ranch in Kansas. From what is leather made? 
272 Scraping the hair from the hides roughly. 
11 Cutting leather in a shoe factory. 
12, 41 Making shoes by machinery. 
532 A shoe shop in Japan. Contrast the Japanese shoes with ours. 
For styles of dress see Classifications Costume Design, Textiles 
and Clothing, and Children of the World. 

F. HEAT AND LIGHT 

74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Most of the heat used in warming our houses, 
driving our machinery and melting our ores comes from coal. 

68 Coke makes a very hot, even fire and is much used in iron and 
steel mills. 

69, 70, 122, 123 Oil and gas for both light and heat are used in many 

of our city homes. They are clean and save labor. . 
144,445 Wood used to be the common fuel. Today it may be con- 
sidered a luxury in the city home. 
6, 31, 40, 43, 53, 84, 139, etc. Electricity is rapidly coming into use as 
motor power and as light. Cars, machinery, automobiles, eleva- 
tors and machinery of all kinds are run by electricity. Electric 
washing machines, irons and stoves lighten housework. 

G. OCCUPATIONS 

In the cities are diversified employments. It is a good thing for 
children to think of what work is done by fathers, brothers, sisters and 
friends ; then work done by other people in their cities, then work of 
other cities. They will then be ready to understand locations and 
commerce. 

i. Manufacturing 

11,12,41,532 Shoe factories employ thousands of men and women. 
As a rule each worker does only one thing — which makes 
the work monotonous with little to cause mental develop- 
ment. 

14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 81 The textile industries furnish employ- 
ment for great numbers of men, women and even children. 
Most states now forbid child labor and have compulsory educa- 
tion laws. Why? 

40 The making of ready-made clothing is an important industry. 
Here again each person does the same thing day after day and 
opportunities for growth are few. This light room is very dif- 
ferent from the sweat shops and tenement homes where a great 
deal of sewing is done. 

58, 59 In New Jersey and in eastern Ohio very many people are busy 
making dishes. 



568 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

61, 62, 63 Large cities grow up where both iron ore and coal can be 
obtained for the manufacture of steel. Great numbers of for- 
eigners gather into these mills to do the unskilled labor. 

116 There are vast mines of both iron and coal in the south which are 

being developed very rapidly. 
65, 66, 67 The wonderful machinery of the steel mills is run by skilled 
workers whose wages are very high. It takes a high class of 
men to do this work. 
82, 150, 151, 152 The manufacture of engines and of machines of all 
kinds call for skilled labor which is always high priced. De- 
troit has had a wonderful growth since it became the center of 
automobile manufacture. 

131, 132, 133 Akron, Ohio, is the center of the rubber manufacture in 
the United States. 

134, 135 Glass factories are not very numerous in the United States. 
Glass-making demands skilled laborers. 

140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145 Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha and other cities 
have immense packing houses where meat for the world is 
prepared. 

187, 203 Cities also grow in our mining districts, for ores must be re- 
duced. 

2. Transportation and Commerce 

Food and raw materials must be brought to the cities for use or for 
further distribution and manufactured products must be sent out. If 
our means of transportation were to stop operation for only a few 
days, there would be nation-wide suffering and destruction. City peo- 
ple would starve, people would freeze, mills would stop, stores close, 
vegetables and fruit would spoil. We can not count the ruin. 
25, 26, 52, 106, 119, 217, 264, 267, 280, 295, 304, 314, 338, 347, 374, 386, 
391, 392, 400, 443, 559 Do you live in a seacoast city with a 
good harbor? To such cities come ships bringing the products 
of other lands and carrying back what you have to sell. The 
good harbor fixed the location of your city. 
61, 119, 128, 157, 164, 170, 174, 264, 267 Is your city on a navigable 

river? Transportation by water is cheaper than by land. 
48, 158, 174, 248, 250, 252, 253, 399, 457, 462, 559 To facilitate commerce 
canals have been constructed and these cause the growth of 
great cities such as Buffalo. 
31, 41, 43, 61, 79, 82, 129, 128, 148, 157, 174, 223, 251, 253, 277, 323, 330, 
440, 470 What railroads enter your city? Is it what you call 
a railroad center? Railroads carry food, manufactures, coal, 
oil, light, in fact everything to market. Conductors, engineers, 
brakemen, switchmen, firemen and a great army of other em- 
ployees keep our railroads going and most of these men live 
in cities. So important are the railroads that the United States 
government regulates the conduct of those passing through more 
than one state. 
31, 145, 273 The elevated railroad and the interurban trolley car with 



THE CITY HOME 569 

the common street car enable men to live far from their work 
and so make large cities possible. 
7, 150, 152 Horses and automobiles are the means of local transpor- 
tation. For instance coffee is brought to your country by ship, 
to your city by rail, to your house by automobile or wagon. 

7, 29, 31, 139, 230, 387, 395 Products brought from all the world to 

the cities are sold in stores and markets which employ countless 
numbers of clerks, book-keepers, cashiers, etc. As a rule these 
people are not highly paid. Some states have made laws regu- 
lating hours and fixing minimum wages. 

8, 25, 30, 61, 121, 126, 139, 152, 167, 212, 213, 220 Everywhere, in all 

cities of the country, are offices where the business of the world 
is carried on. There are thousands of superintendents, managers, 
treasurers, bookkeepers, clerks, stenographers, office boys, jani- 
tors, etc., all busily working that the world's industries may con- 
tinue. 

29, 351 Other men in banks are carrying on the financial operations 
of the world. 

30 Newspapers have a regular army of people engaged in the work 

of disseminating current history. 
28, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 95, 99, 315, 352, 383, 417, 482 Countless other 
people are busy carrying on the work of the government. 

H. GOVERNMENT 

All these things must be regulated by the government in order that 
people will not infringe upon each other's rights and that there may be 
the greatest freedom and safety for all. 

7, 10, 28, 31, 46, 139, 349, 386, 389, 381, 405, etc. City governments 

see that streets are lighted and paved. They establish schools, 
make traffic regulations and do the things which affect us most 
directly. 

8, 464 Look closely for the policemen in these views. A police sys 

tern in every city preserves order and safety. 
8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 41, 74, 75, 76, 77, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, etc. The 
state government grants city charters. Also the state regulates 
the hours and conditions of labor, makes laws regarding health, 
family, property, business and grants civil and political rights. 
26, 32, 52, 154 Foreign and interstate commerce is regulated by the 
United States. 



III. THE COUNTRY HOME 

Starting with the country home as a unit, the child will see his people 
engaged in some form of agriculture. He will see his labor products 
taken away and other things brought in and he will be interested in 
destination and source. Both city and country children should be 



570 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

made to realize their dependence upon each other and to see tha'-. every 
home both gives to and receives from the whole world. 

A. KINDS OF HOMES IN THE COUNTRY 

In what kind of country do you live? Pick out of the list the home 
that is nearest like your own. 

38, 262. Here are two general views of country homes in hilly lands. 
The houses are not crowded together, there is always room, 
light and air. 
96 This is a wealthy home in the rolling lands of Virginia. 
147 This is a home on the prairies of Illinois. What is a prairie? 
181 This home is on the broad plains of Nebraska. 
235, 236 There are very lovely farm homes in the valleys of California. 
What are mountains or valleys? 

B. BUILDING MATERIALS 
96 Most country homes are built of wood or brick. 
368, 373 In other lands where wood is not so plentiful, country homes 
are made of stone. 

C. ROADS 

7, 71, 209 Instead of the crowded street, is the open road. Country 
roads in the United States have been very poor, but now they 
are being paved. Almost every farmer has horses, very many 
have automobiles and these with good roads give country people 
all the advantages of both city and country. 

D. FOODS 

Country people raise a large part of their own food and supply the 
cities too. 
57, 46, 159, 165, 339, 396, 403, 411, 413, 487, 45 The farmer has fresh 

milk and butter for himself and to sell. 
56 You can not imagine a farm without chickens and fresh eggs. 

They are a source of wealth. 
127, 159, 172, 173, 183, 185, 186, 190, 301, 480, 589 Country people raise 

their own meat. 
47, 83, 149, 375 Vegetables fresh from the fields have a much finer 
flavor than those which have to be shipped. 
136, 146, 147, 177, 199, 218, 357, 408 The high cost of grain does not 
bother the farmer. His own bread is sure and what he sells 
is profit. 
104, 105 In the South rice is grown. 

166 The farmer expects to have potatoes to eat and still more to sell. 

85, 108, 175, 235, 236, 237, 238, 294 Farmers have fruit which ripens 

on the vines and has a much finer flavor than that which ripens 

while being shipped. They buy fruit which they cannot raise 

just as city people do. 



THE COUNTRY HOME 571 

302, 310, 311, 303, 530 Coffee, cocoa and tea, they must buy. 
130 Some farmers in the East make maple sugar for household use. 
34, 35, 130, 198, 258, 270, 271, 419, 332, 333 Most of the sugar is bought. 

E. CLOTHES 

409 In early days women spun the thread and wove the cloth for the 
family clothes. 
15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 53, 54, 55, 268, 269 Farmers buy the cloth or 
the readymade clothes just as city people do. 
117, 173, 190 The cotton and wool come from the country. 
11, 12, 41, 133, 272 Residents of farms need heavier shoes for walk- 
ing on the damp, rough earth. 
127, 183, 186, 581 The hides from which leather is made all come 
from farms and ranches. 

F. HEAT AND LIGHT 

144, 445 Wood is the common fuel used in country homes. 
74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Coal is also much used, especially on prairies 

and plains where trees are scarce. 
69, 70, 122, 123 Oil is commonly used for light. 

G. OCCUPATIONS 

Nearly all country people are engaged in some form of agriculture or 
stockraising, but just what they will raise depends upon where the farm 
is, what kind of soil and climate it has, and its nearness to markets or 
shipping places. A farmer's work is always varied and calls for in- 
telligence all the time. Skilful progressive farmers find the work 
mentally stimulating and financially profitable. A farmer today must 
know how to run and care for machinery. 

i. Agriculture 

178, 179, 180 No matter what a man is raising, he must fertilize and 
plow and plant. His success depends largely upon the prepara- 
tion of the land. 
47, 149, 236 If he has rich ground near a city he may run a market 

garden. Always he will have his own kitchen garden. 
83, 198, 184, 419 As soon as the plants are well started he must cul- 
tivate and free from weeds. 
85, 175, 207, 236, 237, 238, 44 If he has an orchard or a fruit farm he 
must trim and cultivate and spray his trees or vines in order to 
have perfect fruit. 

136, 137, 146, 147, 181, 184, 199 If he lives on the prairies or plains he 
may have immense fields of grain which he must harvest at the 
right time. 

177, 233 The grain must be threshed ; corn must be husked and shelled. 

117 If the farm home is on the rich lands of the southern states, 
cotton will be the important crop and there will be many 
negro farm hands to care for it and pick it when ready. 



572 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

124, 125 When ripe the cotton crop must be taken to the gin to be pre- 
pared for market. 

118 Peanuts are an important crop in the warmer parts of our country. 

104, 105 In the low warm lands which can easily be flooded, farmers 
raise rice. Here again we see the negro laborers who cultivate 
the fields. Negroes work easily in the warm lands. 
45, 46, 57, 138, 159, 172, 173, 183, 185 He may have the pleasure of 
raising thoroughbred cattle or horses, sheep or hogs. 

127, 186, 188, 190, 589 Perhaps the farm is a ranch with great droves of 
horses, cattle or sheep roaming wild. Such farms are mostly 
on the plains. 

2. Commerce and Transportation 

The process here is just the reverse of what occurs in the city. The 
farmer sells food, cotton, wool and animals. These must be shipped to 
the city. In return he buys manufactured goods, cloth, shoes, sugar, 
machinery, nails, tools, coffee, tea, etc. 
7, 124, 150, 152 Horses and automobiles carry the stuff away from 
the farm to the market, the store, the mill or the shipping place. 
What is your nearest market? 
31, 41, 43, 61, 79, 82, 129, 128, 148, 157, 174, 223, 251, 253, 277, 323, 330, 
440, 470 Long trains carry the milk, the grains, the cotton and 
wool, the cattle, etc., to the cities where the food may be eaten, 
the cotton and wool made into cloth, the grain ground into 
flour, and the cattle turned into meat and leather; or it may be 
shipped to other places. What railroads are nearest you? 
48, 61, 119, 128, 157, 158, 164, 170, 174, etc. Vessels ply our rivers and 

canals carrying grain and other farm produce to the cities. 
267, 280, 295, 304, 314, 338, 347, 374, 386,391, 392, 400, 443, 559 And in 
our coast cities are ocean vessels waiting to carry our grain and 
cotton and meat to England and other foreign countries. Per- 
haps the wheat in your own field may be carried to France and 
there feed our own soldiers. And you may eat your own bread 
from a plate brought from France on the return voyage. 

H. GOVERNMENT 

71 Local governments in the country have far less to do than in cities. 
Roads are kept in order, schools are established, there are local 
courts. 
8 Property, business, inheritances, civil and political rights are con- 
trolled by the state just as in the city. 
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95 The Federal government is over all 
people whether in country or city. 

IV. NATURAL FEATURES OF LAND AND WATER 

391 The Rhine River in Germany, an important waterway. 

467 The Danube River in Central Europe, much used for navigation. 



THE COUNTRY HOME 573 

39 The Hudson River in New York State. Compare the steep banks 
of the Hudson at this point with the broad plains bordering the 
Danube in the previous view. 

377 A lake among the hills in Ireland. 

388 Among the low mountains of Southern Germany. 

361 A lake and rounded hills in England. 

322 Peaks of the lofty Andes in South America. 

291 Volcanic peaks in Central America. Notice that they rise above 
the clouds. 

276 Sharp peaks and little glaciers in Western Canada. 

427 Mountain peaks of the French Alps. 
448 A mountain peak in the Alps. 

428 A glacier in the Alps. Explain what a glacier is. 

275 A close view of the surface of a small glacier in Canada. 

219 Surface of a small glacier, Wash. 

318 Beautiful waterfalls in South America. 

576 Great waterfalls in Africa. 

444 A beautiful waterfall in Switzerland. 

567 An oasis in the Desert of Egypt. 

194 Geyser in Yellowstone Park. Explain what a geyser is. 

453 A volcano in Italy. 

430 A harbor in France, Cannes. 

326 A harbor in South America, Valparaiso. For what are harbors? 



47. TRAVELOGUE AND LECTURE 
SUGGESTIONS 

By RUSSELL H. CONWELL, D.D., LL.D. 

LECTURER, PRESIDENT OF TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, PHILADELPHIA 

The teacher who would fully instruct or the orator who 
would inspire his audience finds his chief task to be in awaken- 
ing the imagination of his pupils or hearers, so as to produce 
clear mental pictures of scenes and events. If one depends 
upon the spoken word, the orator or lecturer must choose those 
words which will awaken the thought of the hearer and call 
to his mind clear images of the things presented. If the stu- 
dent has. a memory stored with clear, sharp images, a careful 
choice of words will bring the scene or event vividly to mind. 

For the most part, however, and especially in dealing with 
the pupils having a limited range of personal experiences and 
whose opportunity for travel has been limited, more than words 
are needed. Fortunate is the teacher who in dealing with the 
child has at hand such a wealth of concrete, helpful illustra- 
tions as are contained in this Keystone " 600 Set " of stereo- 
graphs and lantern slides. They deal with a wide range of 
school topics and in a clear and effective way. 

The work with the lantern slides will naturally be held to 
the review of the work covered by the study of the stereo- 
graphs in the regular course. For this, one can not too 
strongly recommend the plan of having the pupils give the 
description for the slides as presented. Such a method will 
accomplish much in inspiring the pupil with confidence in ap- 
pearing in this prominent way before the class, but it also pro- 
vides a most excellent drill in oral composition and public 
speaking. The child who appears before the class and ex- 
presses his ideas in a clear, confident way gets a training that 
will be helpful to him throughout life. 

One of the vital problems for every progressive superintend- 

574 



LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 575 

ent and principal is that of closely linking the community and 
the school. Our schools should be made the real center of 
the community life. The Parent-Teacher's Associations 
throughout the country have been doing a great work along 
these lines. Interesting program material is needed for these 
meetings. An excellent idea is to have the pupils review with 
the lantern slides the regular class instruction in geography, 
history, etc. It brings the classroom instruction directly in 
touch with the home, and arouses an interest in the work the 
children are doing. At the same time, appearing before the 
larger audience gives the pupil a still greater training than 
does appearing before the class. 

It may be that the principal in using the lantern himself or 
conducting an exercise with the children will wish to present 
material arranged on a travelogue or lecture plan rather than 
on the regular classroom basis. For this purpose, the classifi- 
cations in this chapter have been arranged and will prove help- 
ful. They are all based on the Keystone " 600 Set " of lan- 
tern slides. 



TRAVELOGUE AND LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 

i. A Day in the New England States 

Fishing 13; History 6, 7 to 10; Interesting sights 2: Lumbering 1; 
Manufacturing 11, 12, 14 to 24; Quarrying 3 to 5. 

2. A Day in the Middle Atlantic States 

Agriculture 47; Children 83; Cities 26, 30, 61; Domestic Art 33; 
Harbors 25: History 36, 37, 71, 73, 80; Immigration 32: Industries 42, 
44 to 46, 48, 56 to 59; Interesting sights 27 to 29, 38, 39, 49 to 51, 60: 
Manufacturing 34, 35, 40, 41, 53 to 55, 62 to 68, 81, 82, 84; Mining 69, 
70, 74 to 79; Transportation 31. 43, 52. 

3. A Day in the South Atlantic States 

Agriculture 104, 105. 108: Harbors 100, 106: History 87 to 92, 96, 98. 

101, 109: Industries 85, 86, 97, 103. 107, 111; Interesting sights 93, 95. 

102, 110: Life saving 99; Manufacturing 94. 

4. A Day in the South Central States 

Agriculture 112, 117. 118: History 113, 114, 126; Industries 119; 
Interesting sights 120, 121; Manufacturing 116. 123 to 125; Mining 115, 
122; Stock raising 127. 



576 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 

5. A Day in the North Central States 

Agriculture 136 to 138, 147, 149, 160, 166, 175, 177 to 181, 184; Build- 
ing dike 148; Cities 139, 167; Dairying 159, 165; History 146, 158, 168, 
169; Indians 182; Industries 128, 130, 140 to 145, 161; Interesting sights 
170, 171, 174: Lumbering 162; Manufacturing 131 to 135, 150 to 153, 156; 
Mining 155, 163, 176; Stock raising 172, 173, 183, 185, 186; Transporta- 
tion 129, 154, 157, 164. 

6. A Day in the Plateau States 

Agriculture 198, 199; Cities 212, 213; Interesting sights 189, 191 to 
197, 200 to 202, 204 to 209, 211; Irrigation 210; Mining 187, 203, 214; 
Stock raising 188, 190. 

7. A Day in the Pacific States 

Agriculture 218, 233, 235 to 238; Cities 220, 230; Fishing 226, 227; 
History 241; Industries 234, 239, 240; Interesting sights 219, 221 to 
223, 228, 229, 231, 232; Lumbering 215 to 217, 224; Mining 225; Sub- 
marines 242. 

8. A Day in the Outlying Possessions of the U. S. 

Alaska 243, 246 ; Panama, Porto Rica, Hawaii 247 to 261 ; Philippines, 
Guam 546 to 554. 

9. A Trip Through the Thirteen Original States 

New Hampshire 3; Massachusetts 6 to 20; Rhode Island 21; Con- 
necticut 22 to 24; New York 25 to 50; New Jersey 51 to 60; Pennsyl- 
vania 61 to 84; Delaware 85; Maryland 86; Virginia 96 to 100; North 
Carolina 102, 103; South Carolina 104, 105; Georgia 106. 

10. A Trip Through the Mississippi Valley 

Pennsylvania 61 to 72; Ohio 130; Indiana 136 to 138; Illinois 146 to 
148; Kentucky 112, 113; Tennessee 114, 115; Mississippi 117: Louisiana 
119, 120; Arkansas 118; Missouri 174 to 176; Iowa 170 to 173; Wiscon- 
sin 159 to 161 ; Minnesota 165 to 169; North Dakota 177: South Dakota 
178, 179; Nebraska 180 to 182; Kansas 183 to 186: Oklahoma 121: 
Texas 127; Colorado 198 to 201; Wyoming 191 to 197; Montana 187 
to 189. 

11. A Trip Through the Louisiana Purchase 
Arkansas 118; Colorado 198 to 201: Iowa 170 to 173: Kansas 183 to 
186; Louisiana 119. 120; Minnesota 165 to 169: Missouri 174 to 176; 
Montana 187 to 189; Nebraska 180 to 182; North Dakota 177; Okla- 
homa 121 ; South Dakota 178, 179; Wyoming 191 to 197. 

12. A Day in Canada, Alaska and the Arctic Regions 

Alaska 243 to 246; Canada 262 to 277; Newfoundland 278, 279; 
Arctic 342, 343. 



LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 577 

13. Mexico, Central America and West Indies 

Agriculture 289, 297, 298, 302, 303 ; Cities 281 to 283, 299 ; Fruits 294 ; 
Harbors 280, 295 ; History 293, 296 ; Industries 285 ; Interesting sights 
284, 288, 291, 300; Manufacturing 286; Mining 287; People 290, 292; 
Stock raising 301. 

14. A Day in South America and the Antarctic Region 

Agriculture 319, 332, 333; Antarctic 344 to 346; Children 306; Cities 
304, 305, 308, 309, 315, 316, 312, 324, 336 to 341 ; Harbor 307, 314, 313, 
326, 327; Industries 310, 311, 325; Interesting sights 318, 320 to 323, 
328 to 331, 335; Mining 325; Silver refining 334; Stock raising 317. 

15. A Day in the British Isles 

Agriculture 357 ; Cities 348 to 352, 360, 365, 375, 380, 381 ; Harbors 
347, 374; History 354 to 356, 367, 368; Interesting sights 353, 359, 363, 
366, 369, 361, 362, 372, 373, 376 to 379, 382; Stock raising 358, 364, 
370, 371. 

16. A Day in France, Monaco and Spain 

Cities 421 to 425, 429 to 432, 434, 435; Fruit 437, 438; Glaciers 427, 
428 ; Harbors 433 ; History 436, 439 ; Interesting sights 426. 

17. A Day in Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden 

Agriculture 419; Cities 395, 396, 399, 400, 404 to 406, 416; Harbors 
420: History 397; Industries 409 to 411; Interesting sights 401, 402, 
407, 408, 413 to 415, 417, 418; Manufacturing 412; Stock raising 398, 403. 

18. A Day in Germany, Austria and Hungary 

Agriculture 388, 390; Children 465; Cities 383 to 385, 387, 460, 461; 
Harbors 386; History 389, 466; Interesting sights 391, 392, 464; People 
393 ; Transportation 462, 463 ; Zeppelin 394. 

19. A Day in Switzerland and Italy 

Cities 442, 450, 455, 456, 458; History 451, 452, 457; Industries 443; 
Marketing 447; Interesting sights 441, 444 to 446, 448, 453, 454; Lakes 
459; Transportation 449, 440. 

20. A Day in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, Turkey, the 
Ukraine, Russia, and Poland 

Agriculture 488; Cities 482, 483, 486; History 467. 470, 472, 475, 477, 
478; Industries 469. 473, 479, 481, 487; Marketing 469, 485; Interesting 
sights 473, 476, 484 ; People 468, 471 ; Stock raising 480 ; Transporta- 
tion 474. 

21. A Day in Africa 

Agriculture 561 to 562, 571; Cities 557, 558, 560, 582; Harbors 556. 
574 ; History 565 to 568 : Industries 555, 570, 573 ; Interesting sights 564, 
575 to 578, 583. 584: Irrigation 569; Mining 579, 581; People 572; 
Transportation 580, 559. 



578 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 

22. A Day in Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and North Africa 

Agriculture 561 to 563 ; Cities 493, 557, 558, 560 ; Harbors 492, 556 ; 
History 495, 565, 568; Industries 497, 498; Marketing 555; Interesting 
sights 489, 491, 564, 569; People 490, 494, 496; Transportation 559. 

23. A Day in India, China and Japan 

Agriculture 522, 527 to 530; Cities 500, 513, 517, 526; Harbors 499 
511; History 501, 502; Industries 507, 512, 516, 521, 523, 531, 542, 543 
Interesting sights 508, 514, 515, 525, 533 to 535; Manufacturing 541, 506 
Shoe shop 532; People 503, 510, 519, 520; Silk Culture 536 to 540 
Transportation 504, 505, 509, 518, 524. 

24. A Day in Asia 

Agriculture 522; Cities 493, 500, 513, 517; Harbors 492. 499. 511; 
History 495, 501, 502; Industries 497, 498, 507, 512, 516, 521, 523; Inter- 
esting sights 489, 491, 508, 514, 515; Manufacturing 506: People 490, 
494, 496, 503, 510, 519, 520; Transportation 504, 505, 509, 518, 524. 

25. A Day in Japan, Australia and the East Indies 

Agriculture 527 to 530, 549; Cities 526, 587, 590; Harbors 591; His- 
tory 547; Industries 531, 542, 543, 550 to 553; Interesting sights 525, 
533 to 535, 545, 585, 586, 588, 546, 554; Manufacturing 532, 541 ; People 
592 ; Stock raising 589 ; Transportation 548. 

26. Noted Monuments 

10 Lexington, Mass.; 25 New York City; 283 Soldiers' Monument, 
City of Mexico ; 288 The Sacred Shrine and " Old Popocatepetl," Cho- 
lula, Mexico; 350 Westminster Abbey; 365 Scott's Monument; 368 
Wallace Monument : 380 Dublin. Ireland ; 416 Stockholm ; 433 Colum- 
bus Monument; 450 Rome; 451 St. Peter's Cathedral, Rome: 460 Marie 
Theresa Platz, Innsbruck, Austria; 463 Vienna, Austria; 473 St. 
Sophia, Constantinople: 475 Acropolis, Athens; 502 Taj Mahal, Agra, 
India; 561, 564, 566 Pyramids; 565 The Sphinx; 390, 391 National 
Monument, Germany; 568 Karnak, Egypt; 385 Berlin, Germany: 29 
Washington Monument; 384 Royal Palace, Berlin; 387 Cathedral, 
Nuremburg, Germany ; 375 Cork, Ireland. 

27. State and National Capitals 

6 to 8 Boston; 87 to 95 Washington, D. C. : 121 Oklahoma, Okla. : 
248 City of Panama; 260 Honolulu, Hawaii; 264 Quebec, Canada: 273 
Winnipeg, Can.; 305 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 315 Buenos Aires. Argen- 
tina: 324 Santiago, Chile; 340 Caracas, Venezuela: 348 to 352 London; 
365 Edinburgh, Scotland: 380 Dublin, Ireland; 383, 384 Berlin: 389 
Strassburg. Germany; 395 Brussels. Belgium: 404 Copenhagen, Den- 
mark: 416 Stockholm, Sweden; 421. 425 Paris; 432 Monaco: 435 
Madrid, Spain: 450 to 452 Rome: 455 Palermo, Sicily: 460 Innsbruck. 
Austria; 462 Vienna; 464 Budapest, Hungary; 466 Bosnia, Jugo- 



LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 579 

Slavia; 468 Sofia, Bulgaria; 472 to 474 Constantinople; 475 Athens; 
485 Warsaw, Poland; 493 Damascus; 495 Jerusalem; 503 Delhi, 
India; 506 Kashmir, India; 511 Colombo, Ceylon; 526 Tokyo, 
Japan; 556 Algiers, Algeria; 560 Cairo, Egypt; 574 Dar-es-Salaam, 
German E. Africa; 587 Melbourne, Victoria; 590 Hobart, Tasmania. 

28. Show Places of America 

Massachusetts 6 to 10; New York 25 to 32, 36 to 39, 49, 50; New 
Jersey 51, 52, 60; Pennsylvania 61. 73, 80; Washington, D. C. 87 to 95: 
West Virginia 101; Florida 109; Kentucky 113; Tennessee 114; Texas 
126; Illinois 139 to 144, 146; Michigan 154; Iowa 170. 171; Missouri 
174; Montana 187; Wyoming 191 to 197; Colorado 200 to 202, 205; 
Arizona 206 to 210; Utah 212; Washington 219; Oregon 221. 222: 
California 228 to 230, 237, 241 ; Panama Canal 248 to 256 ; Canada 262, 
264 to 267, 274 to 276. 

29. Show Places of Europe 

Liverpool 347; London 348 to 352; Greenwich 353; Shakespeare 354 
to 356; York 360; Lake District 361, 362; Wales 363; Scotland 365 to 
369; Ireland 376, 382; Germany 383 to 387, 391; Belgium 395 to 397; 
Holland 400; Denmark 404 to 406; Norway 407; Sweden 417; Paris 
421 to 425; Monaco 432; Spain 435, 436; Gibraltar 439; Switzerland 
446 to 448; Italy 450 to 453, 457; Vienna 463; Sarajevo 466; Roumania 
470; Constantinople 472 to 474; Greece 475 to 478; Russia 482, 483. 

30. Mountain Scenes 

United States 102, 114, 189 to 197. 200 to 202, 207. 208. 212 to 214, 219, 
221, 222, 228; Alaska 243; Canada 274 to 276; Mexico 282, 288; Guate- 
mala 291: Argentina 321; Chile 322, 323; Peru 329, 330: Bavaria 388; 
Norway 408: France 427, 428; Spain 436; Switzerland 440, 441, 444 to 
449; Italv 459; Austria 460; Bosnia 466; Greece 480; India 508; Japan 
525: Philippines 548; Africa 580; Bohemia 463. 

31. Places Tourists Spend Fortunes to See 

Boston 6 to 8: New York 25 to 30; Niagara Falls 49. 50; Washing- 
ton, D. C. 87 to 95; Mt. Vernon, Va. 96; Chicago 139, 140; Yellowstone 
National Park 191 to 197 ; Cliff Dwellers Palace 205 : Yosemite Valley 
228, 229: Panama Canal 248 to 256: Quebec 264 to 266; Canadian 
Rockies 274 to 276: Rio de Janeiro 305 to 307; Buenos Aires 314 to 
316: Santiago 324; Valparaiso 326, 327; Incan Palace 331; London 
348 to 352; Sterling Castle 367: Blarney Castle 376; Berlin 383, 384: 
Paris 421 to 425; Monaco 432; Madrid 435: Alhambra Palace 436; The 
Matterhorn 448: Rome 450 to 452: Venice 457; Rock of Gibraltar 439: 
Lake Como 459 ; Bohemia 463 ; Budapest 464 : Constantinople 472 to 
474; Athens 475, 476; Corinth 477; Olympia 478; Petrograd 482; Mos- 
cow 483 ; Damascus 493 ; Jerusalem 495 : Jericho Road 496 : Nazareth 
497; The Taj Mahal 502; Great Wall of China 524; Fuji-Yama 525; 
Manila 546, 547 ; Alexandria 558 ; Suez Canal 559 ; Cairo 560 ; Pyramids 



580 LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 

564 to 566; Thebes 567; Karnak 568; Great Assuan Dam 569; Victoria 
Falls 576; Cape Town 582; Melbourne 587. 

32. Great Engineering Feats 

Bridges 27, 50, 174. 348, 366, 392. 470, 472, 560; Canals: Danube 462: 
Erie 48, 43; Panama 248 to 256; " Soo " 154; Suez 559; Dams: Great 
Assuan 569; Keokuk 170, 171; Roosevelt 210; Eiffel tower 421; Great 
wall of China 524; Incan Palace wall 331 ; Pyramids 284, 561, 564, 565, 
566 ; Skyscrapers 25, 26, 28, 30, 139, 230 ; U. S. Capitol 87 ; Transporta- 
tion devices: Automobile 150, 316; Submarine 242; Zeppelin 394; 
Great engineering feats when built: Trinity church 29; Congressional 
Library 95; Notre Dame 425; St. Peter's Cathedral 451 ; Colosseum 452; 
Milan Cathedral 458; Kremlin 483; Parthenon 475; Temple of Zeus 478; 
Taj Mahal 502 ; Karnak 568. 

33. Important Harbors and Waterways of the World 

New York Harbor 25, 26; Erie Canal 48, 43; Hudson River 38, 39, 
51 ; Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio Rivers 61 ; Hampton Roads 
100; Savannah River 106; Mississippi River 170, 119, 120; Great Lakes 
128, 154, 164; " Soo" Canal 154; Columbia River 215, 226; Puget Sound 
216, 217; Panama Canal 248, 252, 253, 254, 256: St. Lawrence River 264, 
267; Vera Cruz Harbor 280; Havana Harbor 295, 296; Rio de Janeiro 
Harbor 307; Buenos Aires Harbor 314; Valparaiso Harbor 326; La 
Guaira 338 ;' Liverpool 347; Thames River 348; Firth of Forth 366; 
Queenstown 374; Hamburg 386; Rhine River 391, 392; Rotterdam 400; 
Marseilles 429; Barcelona 433; Strait of Gibraltar 439; Tiber River 
451 ; Danube Canal 462 ; Danube River 467, 470, 471 ; Constantinople 
Harbor 472, 473; Neva River 482; Bosporus 489; Ganges River 500, 501 ; 
Canton Harbor 514; Yangtze River 515, 517; Algiers Harbor 556; 
Alexandria Harbor 558; Suez Harbor 559; Nile River 561, 564; Dar- 
Fs-Salaam Harbor 574; Auckland Harbor 591. 

34. Through Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey 

Germany 383 to 394; Austria-Hungary 460 to 466; Bulgaria 468, 469; 
Turkey 472 to 474, 489 to 498. 

35. Through Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Russia, Rou- 
mania and Serbia 

Great Britain 347 to 382; France 421 to 431; Belgium 395 to 398; 
Italy 450 to 459; Russia 481 to 488, 544; Roumania 470, 471 ; Serbia 467. 

36. Other Suggested Trips 

A visit to the country in U. S. and possessions. 
A visit to the country in other lands. 
A visit to the city in U. S. and possessions. 
A visit t© the city in other lands. 



INDEX 

This index for the Teachers' Guide is prepared on a two- 
fold working basis. First, there is given for each item paging 
reference in the various classifications, referring to the pages 
of the complete Teachers' Guide. Second, there is given in 
many cases a reference to the serial numbers of stereographs 
and slides, which illustrate the topic. This selection of serial 
numbers has been purposely limited, so that in going directly 
to the set for the material, the illustrations will be obvious. 
We have omitted many references which are necessary when 
considered in connection with the classifications of which they 
form a part, but where the references would not be so clear 
without such explanatory statement. 

Abbreviations used in this index are as follows : 

Am. Today = America of Today 

An. = Animals 

An. Hus. = Animal Husbandry 

Arct. = Architecture. 

Children = Children of the World 

Cities = The Cities of the World 

Com. Civ. = Community Civics 

Con. Stone B. & T. = Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile 

Cos. Dsn. = Costume Design 

Dev. Na. =The Development of the Nation 

Draw. = Drawing 

Farth N. = Earth Neighbors 

Eat & Wear = Some Things We Eat. Some Things We Wear 

Eng. Comp. = English Composition 

E. Am. Na. = Foundations of the American Nation 

Farm C. = Farm Crops 

Farm H. & F. L. = Farm Home and Farm Fife 

Farm M. = Farm Management — Farm Machinery 

Food & Ckry. = Food & Cookery 

For. Beg. = Foreign Beginnings of American History 

Gdn. Orch. & W. = Garden. Orchard and Wood Lot 

Geo. = Geographical Classification 

Govt. = Government 

Home Geo. = Home Geography 

House Adm. = Household Administration 

House Dsn. = House Design and Decoration 

Hyg. = Hygiene — Health Habits 

Tnd. Dsn. = Industrial Design 

Tnd. Sun. Hnme = Industries Supplying the Home 

Lit. Sub. = Literary Subjects and Settings 

Loc. Ind. = Local Industries 

58l 



582 



INDEX 



Metals = Metals — Sources and Uses 

Mkts. = Markets and Marketing 

Ntl. F. = Natural Forms and Forces (Physical Geography) 

Out Door L. = Out Door Life 

p. = Page 

pp. — Pages 

Peo. = People of All Lands (Racial Geography) 

Photo. = Photography 

PI. & An. = Plants and Animals 

PI. Asso. = Plants and Plant Associations 

Pol. Geo. = Geography by Nations (Political Geography) 

Prod. Mfg. = Production and Manufacturing 

Read. = Reading 

S. No. = Serial Number 

Tex. & CI. = Textiles and Clothing 

Trans. = Transportation 

Trav. & Lee. = Travelogue and Lecture Suggestions 

Voc. Guid. = Vocational Guidance 

Zones = Zones and Their Effect on Life. 

The numbers given in black faced type are the serial numbers of 
the stereographs and slides. These serial numbers correspond 
with the serial numbers in the Geographical Classification and 
Title List (page 3), also with the serial numbers on the stereo- 
graphs and slides. This plan enables one to turn directly from 
the Index to the Title List or to the cabinet of material and select 
instantly the scene desired. 



Abbev, Westminster. Geo. p. 20 

S. No. 350 
Aberdeen Angus, Ceo. p. 21 
An. Hus. p. 292 

S. No. 370 
Acadia, F. Am. Na. p. 162 

S. No. 262 
Acropolis of Athens. Geo. p. 25, 
Ntl. F. p. 108 

S. No. 475 

Adams, John, Dcv. Na. p. 164 

S. No. 80, 91 
Adams, J. Q., Dev. Na. p. 165 

S. No. 87, 88, 91, 92 

Adelaide. Geo. p. 30 

S. No. 588 
Administration, Household, no 

383 to 385 
Adobe, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 438, 

470, House Dsn. pp. 470, 

471, 472 



S. No. 211, 281, 290, 299, 564 

Africa, Geo. p. 28, For. Beg. p. 157, 
House Dsn. p. 465, Cos. 
Dsn. p. 485, Children p. 
510, Read. p. 548, Trav. 
& Lee. p. 577 
S. No. 555 to 584 
Africa. British Fast. Geo. p. 29. 
Pol. Geo. pp. 128. 130 
S. No. 570 to 573 
African People, Geo. pp. 28, 29, 
Peo. p. 43 
S. No. 555, 560 to 566, 570, 
572, 573, 577 to 580 
Africa. South. Geo. p. 29. Pol. Gen. 
pp. 128. 130 
S. No. 579 to 584 
\goonak, Read. p. 533 
\gra. India. Gen. p. 26 

S. No. 502 
Agriculture, p. 267, Prod. Mfg. p. 
64, F. Am. Na. p. 159, 
Fug. Comp. p. 252, Soils 
p. 269, Farm C. p. 276. 
Gdn. Oreh. & IV. p. 284, 



INDEX 



583 



An. Hus. p. 291, Farm 
M. p. 297, Farm H. & F. 
L. p. 311, Metals p. 431, 
Home Geo. p. 671 

Agricultural Implements, Farm M. 
p. 308 

Agricultural Methods, Dcv. Na. pp. 
166, 174, Am. Today p. 

178, Farm C. p. 279, Farm 
H. & F. L. p. 314, Metals 
p. 431, Loc. Ind. p. 443, 
Children p. 515 

S. No. 136, 161, 178, 179, ISO, 
207, 237, 284, 332, 488, 
522, 561 
Agricultural Methods, Modern, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Farm C. 
p. 277, Farm M. p. 299, 
Metals p. 431 
S. No. 44, 45, 46, 147, 149, 
159, 166, 173, 177, 178, 

179, 180, 181, 198, 199, 
218, 233, 333, 357, 358, 
364 

Agricultural Methods, Primitive, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Farm C. 
p. 277, Children p. 515 
S. No. 105, 479, 488, 497, 522, 
528, 529, 549, 561 
Agricultural College. Geo. p. 12, 
Govt. p. 196 
3. No. 172, 173 
Agriculture, Department of, Govt. 
p. 196 
S. No. 93 
Air, Hyg. p. 504 

Airship, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 
86, Am. Today p 178 
S. No. 394 
Aitkenhead, Wm., pp. xxxvii, 

Farm M. p. 297 
Alahama, Geo. p. 9 

S. No. 116 
Alamo, Geo. p. 10, Dev. Na. p. 
167 
S. No. 126 
Alaska, Geo. p. 15, Pol. Geo. p. 
123, Dev. Na. pp. 171, 
173, Am. Today, p. 186, 
Govt. p. 198, Children p. 
507, Read. p. 540 
S. No. 243 to 246 
Alexandria, Geo. p. 28, Pol. Geo 
p. 128 



S. No. 558 

Alfalfa, Geo. p. 12, Farm C. p. 

282 
S. No. 181, 183 
Alhambra, The, Geo. p. 23, Lit. 

Sub. p. 244 
S. No. 436 
Algeria, Pol. Geo. p. 132 

S. No. 556 
Algiers, Geo. p. 28, Pol. Geo. p. 

132, Read. p. 626 
S. No. 556 
Allegheny River, Geo. p. 7 
Alligators, Geo. p. 9, Dev. Na. p. 

169, An. p. 338, PI. & 

An. p. 520 
S. No. 110 
Alluvial Soil, Ntl. F. p. 105, Soils 

p. 271 
S. No. 237, 467, 515 
Almeria, Geo. p. 23 

S. No. 438 
Almonds, Geo. p. 14, Prod. Mfg. p. 

49, Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 

288, PI. Asso. p. 325, 

Foods & Ckry. p. 368 
S. No. 234 
Alps, Geo. p. 23 

S. No. 427, 428, 440 to 449 
Altitude, Zones p. 118 
Altitude & Effect on Life, pp. 109 

to 120, Earth N. p. 143 
" A man's a man for a' that " — 

Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 
Americans, Citizens, Com. Civ. 

p. 202 
American History, Foreign Begin- 
nings, pp. 150 to 157 
American Nation, Foundations, pp. 

158 to 163 
America of Today — Our Re- 
sources — Preparedness 

pp. 177 to 187 
America — Smith, Lit. Sub. p. 247, 

Read. p. 531 
America — Spanish, Geo. pp. 17, 

18, 19, 20, Dev. Na. p. 172 
S. No. 280 to 341 
American Indians, Peo. pp. 42, 

43 
American People, Peo. pp. 33, 34 
Among the Icebergs, Lit. Sub. p. 

248 
Amsterdam, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 

79, Cities p. 222 



584 



INDEX 



S. No. 399 

Amundsen, Roald, Geo. p. 20 

S. No. 346 
Andersen, Hans Christian, Read. 

p. 532 _ 
Andes, Mountains, Geo. p. 19 

S. No. 321 to 323, 329, 330 
Andrews, Jane, Read. p. 533 
Androclus and the Lion, Lit. Sub. 

p. 248, Read. p. 531 
Angelus, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Angus, Aberdeen, An. Hus. p. 292 

S. No. 370 
Animals, pp. 331 to 340, Eng. 
Comp. p. 251, Draw. p. 
475, Children pp. 506, 513, 
PL & An. p. 520 
S. No. 2, 110, 118, 138, 172, 
173, 188, 189, 232, 335, 
345, 364, 411, 413, 505, 
509, 549, 565, 588 
Animal Fibers, Tex & CI. p. 276 
S. No. 539, 173, 411, 565, 335 
Animal Husbandry, pp. 291 to 

296 
Animals & Plants, pp. 517 to 526 
Animal, Transportation, Trans, p. 

75 
Antarctic, Geo. p. 20 

S. No. 344 to 346 
Anthracite, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 56, Dev. Na. p. 174, hid. 
Sup. Home p. 359 
S. No. 74 to 79 
Antwerp, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 396 
Apartment Houses, House Dsn. p. 
465 
S. No. 462 
Appalachians, Geo. p. 8 

S. No. 102, 103 
Apple, The — Burroughs, Lit. Sub. 

p. 243 
Apples, Geo. pp. 6, 12, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 48, Dev. Na. p. 170, 
Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 288, 
PL Asso. p. 325, Food & 
Ckry. p. 370, PL & An. 
p. 517, Eat & IV ear, p. 
552 
S. No. 44, 175 
Apron, Cos. Dsn. p. 481 

S. No. 396, 418 
Arabs, Cos. Dsn. p. 482, Read. p. 
531 



S. No. 494, 555, 560, 562 to 
566 

Arab's Farewell to His Steed, The, 

Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Arbitration, Govt. p. 198 
Arch, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Arct. pp. 
399, 405, 415, Con. Stone 
B. & T. p. 455 
S. No. 174, 260, 348, 384, 
392, 397, 425, 450 to 452, 
456, 524, 557 
Architect, Voc. Guid. p. 351 
Architectural Composition, Arct. p. 

401 
Architectural " Orders," Arct. p. 

402 
Architectural Photography, Photo. 

p. 494 
Architecture, pp. 388 to 419, House 

Dsn. p. 463 
Architecture, Domestic, Arct. p. 

409 
Architecture, History, Arct. p. 398 
Architecture. Industrial Design, 

pp. 388 to 419 
Architecture, Styles, Arct. p. 399 
Arctic Circle, Geo. pp. 15, 20, An. 
pp. 337, 339, Cos. Dsn. p. 
485 
S. No. 246, 342, 343, 413 to 
415 
Arctic Forests, PL Asso. pp. 322, 
327 
S. No. 244, 413 
Arctic Snows, PL Asso. p. 327 

S. No. 243, 342, 345, 346 
Arequipa, Peru, Geo. p. 19 

S. No. 329 
Argentina, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 
124, Read. p. 542 
S. No. 314 to 321 
Arid, Zones p. 114 

S. No. 561, 563, 564, 566 
Arizona, Geo. p. 13, Ntl. F. pp. 98, 
99, Read. p. 539 
S. No. 206 to 210 
Arkansas, Geo. p. 9 

S. No ; 118 
Armada, Spanish, Pol. Geo. p. 

127 
Arnold, Benedict, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Arno River, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 456 
Aroostook, Me., Read. p. 536 



INDEX 



585 



Arrangement, Arct. p. 401 
Art & Domestic Science, p. 356 
Arts, Domestic, p. 356, Ind. Sup. 
Home, pp. 358 to 361, 
Food & Ckry. pp. 362 to 
373, Tex. & CI. pp. 374 to 
382, House Adm. pp. 383 
to 385 
Arts, Fine, p. 453, Drazv, pp. 455 
to 461, House Dsn. pp. 462 
to 476, Photo, pp. 487 to 
500 
Arts, Industrial, p. 386, Ind. Dsn 
pp. 388 to 419, Wood pp 
420 to 424, Metals pp 
425 to 431, Con. Stone B 
& T. pp. 432 to 438, Loc 
Ind. pp. 439 to 447 
Ash, Wood P. 429 

S. No. 369 
" A ship, a ship a-sailing," Read. p. 
532 
S. No. 27, 525 
Asia, Geo. p. 25, Children, p. 509, 
Read. p. 546, Trav. & 
Lcc. p. 578 
S. No. 489 to 554 
Asia Minor. Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. 
p. 152, Trav. & Lcc. p. 
578 
S. No. 489, 490, 491 
Asphalt. Prod. Mfg.. p. 57 

S. No. 48, 316 
Assuan, Geo. p. 29 

S. No. 569 
Association, Plant, pp. 320 to 330 
Astronomical Geography, Geo. p. 
30, Earth N. pp. 140 to 
147 
S. No. 593 to 600 
Astronomical Photography, Photo. 
p. 500 
S. No. 593 to 600 
Athens, Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 
152, Read. p. 546 
S. No. 475, 476 
Atlantic City, Com. Civ. p. 201, 
Hyg. p. 448 
S. No. 60 
Atmosphere, Ntl. F. p. 98 
Atwood, W. W., pp. xxxi, 97 
Auckland, Geo. p. 30 
S. No. 591 



Auld Lang Syne — Burns, Lit. 

Sub. p. 243 
Australia, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. pp. 
128, 129. House Dsn. p. 
520, Read. p. 549, Trav. & 
Lcc. p. 578 
S. No. 585 to 589 
Australia & Islands, Geo. p. 30 

S. No. 585 to 592 
Australians, Peo. p. 40 

S. No. 585, 590 
Australia — South, Pol. Geo. p. 129 

S. No. 588 
Austria, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 
137, House Dsn. p. 465, 
Read. p. 545 
S. No. 460 to 466 
Authors, Lit. Sub. pp. 242 to 249 
Automohile. Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 62, Trans, p. 85, Dev. 
Na. p. 175, Farm H. & 
F. L. p. 317, Voc. Guid. p. 
350, Loc. Ind. p. 442 
S. No. 31, 109, 122, 126, 150, 
152, 167, 229, 230, 305, 
315, 316 
Avon River, Geo. p. 20 

S. No. 356 
Awnings, Tex. & CI. p. 380 

S. No. 100, 213, 406, 535 
Ayr, Scotland, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 372 
Ayrshire Cattle, Geo. p. 21, An. 
Hits. p. 291 
S. No. 371 
Aztecs, Geo. p. 17 
S. No. 282 



B 



Babies, Children pp. 587. 588 

S. No. 6, 158, 204, 328, 338, 

455, 534 
Bagley, William C, pp. ix, xxix, 

xliii, 579 
Bahia, Brazil, Geo. p. 18 

S. No. 304 
Baker, Franklin Thomas, pp. 

xxxii, 243, 245 
Balance, Ind Dsn. p. 391 
Balboa, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Am. 

Today, p, 187 



586 



INDEX 



Balconies, House Dsn. pp. 472, 473 

S. No. 306, 312, 336, 445 
Balfe, J. W., Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Baltimore, Geo. p. 8 

S. No. 86 
Bamboo, Geo. pp. 27, 28, Wood p. 
421 
S. No. 514, 531, 534, 538, 546, 
550 
Banana, Geo. p. 17. Prod. Mfg. p. 
48, Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 
289, PI. Asso. pp. 320, 325, 
Food & Ckry. p. 370, PL 
& An. p. 517, Eat & 
Wear p. 552 
S. No. 259, 294, 297, 302, 570, 
575 
Banking, Voc. Guid. p. 353 
Bannockburn — Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 

243 
Barcelona, Geo. p. 23, For. Beg. p. 
157 
S. No. 433 
Barefoot Boy. The — Whittier, 

Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Barges, Geo. p. 78 

S. No. 61, 267, 429 
Bark Cloth, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. 
pp. 53, 69, Eng. Com p. p. 
254, Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 
378 
S. No. 570 
Barley, Prod. Mfg. pp. 46, 65, 
Food & Ckry. p. 367, 
Farm C. p. 278, Eat & 
Wear p. 554 
S. No. 199, 410, 566 

Barns. 

S. No. 57, 159, 165, 185, 236 
Barranquilla, Geo. p. 19. Zones p. 
110, Cities p. 221, hid. 
Dsn. pp. 397, 403, Arct. p. 
408 
S. No. 337 
Basaltic Formation 
S. No. 51, 382 
Baskets, Arct. p. 419 

S No 17, 108, 177, 263, 375, 
378, 409, 423, 437. 530, 
548, 572 
Bathing, Geo. pp. 7, 26 

S. No. 60, 501 
Battlefields, Famous, Geo. pp. 7, 9, 
22 



S. No. 73, 114, 397 

Battleships, Trans, p. 82 
S. No. 100, 242, 254 
Bavaria, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 388 
Bayly, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Bays. Ntl. F. p. 104 

S. No. 248, 492, 527 
Beaches, Geo. pp. 7, 23, 27, Ntl. F. 
p. 103 
S. No. 13, 60, 430, 432, 439, 
531 
Bead-work, Cos. Dsn. p. 486 

S. No. 98, 168, 182, 265 
Beans, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 

S. No. 562 
Beard, Daniel Carter, pp. xxxviu, 

Out Door L. p. 341 
Beaver Dam, An. p. 338, PI. & An. 
p. 520 
S. No. 196 
Beef, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Children 
p. 513, Eat & Wear p. 556 
S. No. 127, 140. 141, 185, 186, 
301, 317, 358, 370, 580 
Beet, Geo. p. 13, Prod. Mfg. p. 47. 
Gdn., Orch. & W. p. 285, 
PI. Asso. p. 329 
S. No. 198, 270, 271, 419 
Beet Sugar — See Sugar Beet 

S. No. 270, 271 
Being a Boy — Warner, Lit. Sub. 

p. 247 
Beirut, Syria, Geo. p. 26, For. Beg. 
p. 151 
S. No. 492 
Belfast, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 381 
Belgica Antarctic Expedition 

' S. No. 344, 345 
Belgium, Geo. p. 22, Peo. p. 35, 
Pol. Geo. p. 133, Children 
p. 508, Read. p. 543, Eat 
rr Wear p. 553 
S. No. 395 to 398 
Belgrade, Serbia, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 467 
Bells, Arct. p. 419, Metals p. 430 

S. No. 71. 80, 241, 484 
Bells of Shandon, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Bells, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Benares, Geo. p. 26, Trans, p. 80, 
Cities pp. 227, 231, 237, 
Arct. p. 410 
S. No. 501 



INDEX 



587 



Ben Hur, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Reppu, Japan, Geo. p. 27 

S. No. 531 
Berlin, Geo. p. 21, Read. p. 544 

S. No. 383, 384 
Bettws-y-Coed, Wales, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 363 
Beverages, Prod. Mfg. p. 49 

S. No. 285, 287, 295, 302, 303, 
310, 311, 373, 468, 521, 
530, 534 
Bible, Lit. Sub. p. 242 
Big trees, PL Asso. p. 322, Wood 
p. 422 
S. No. 224, 229 
Bingen on the Rhine — Norton, 
Geog. p. 22, Lit. Sub. p. 
246 
Birch, PI. Asso. p. 325, Wood p. 
421 
S. No. 1, 162 
Birch Bark 

S. No. 169, 263 
Birds, Prod. Mfg. p. 67, An. p. 
339, Children p. 512 
S. No. 56, 72, 239, 240, 583, 
584 
Bison, Geo. p. 14, Prod. Mfg. p. 
51, An. p. 334, PI. & An. 
p. 521 
S. No. 232 
Bitting, Harry S., pp. xli, 475 
Black Beauty, Read. p. 531 
Black Race, Peo. p. 43 

S. No. 115, 117, 118, 119, 338, 
570, 572, 577, 578, 579, 
581 592 
Blake, Wm.', Read. p. 532 
Dlanching Celery 

S. No. 149 
Blankets, Tex. & CI. p. 380, Cos. 
Dsn. p. 486 
S. No. 158, 188, 204, 281 
Blarney Castle, Geo. p. 21, Gdn., 
Orch. & W. p. 287 
S. No. 376 
Blast Furnace 
S. No. 62 
Bloomfield, Myer, pp. xxxix, Voc. 

Guid. p. 347 
Blooming Mill 
S. No. 66 



" Blow, wind, blow ; and go, mill, 

go." Read. p. 531 
Blue and the Gray, The, Lit. Sub. 

p. 248 
Bine Bells of Scotland, The, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
Blue Gum. See Eucalyptus 
Blue Ridge, Geo. p. 8, Read. p. 535 

S. No. 102 
Boats, Trans, pp. 78, 79, 80, 
Arct. p. 417, Draw. p. 461 
S. No. 26, 27, 32, 39, 48, 52, 
100, 106, 119, 154, 217, 
253, 254, 280, 326, 386, 
396, 415, 430, 459, 511, 
514, 546, 559 
Bohemia, Geo. p. 24, Ntl. F. p. 
100, Arch. pp. 412, 413, 
Draiving, p, 456 
S. No. 463 
Bolivia, Geo. p. 19 

S. No. 335 
Bonn, Ger., Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 392 
Boots, Rubber, Geo. p. 10, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 53, Eat & Wear 
p. 639 
Boots, Leather, Prod. Mfg. p. 69. 
S. No. 161 

S. No. 42, 46, 75, 130, 133, 
161, 227 

Bosnia, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 38, Pol. 
Geo. p. 137 

S. No. 466 
Bosporus, The, Geo. p. 25 

S. No. 489 
Boston, Geo. p. 5, Com. Civ. p. 200, 
Read. p. 536 

S. No. 6 to 8 
Botany (see PI. Asso.) 
Box Tree, PI. Asso. p. 325 

S. No. 379 
Boys & Girls of Japan, Read. p. 
532 

S. No. 530, 532, 534, 535 
Boy, The Barefoot — Whittier, 
Lit. Sub. p. 248 

S. No. 488 
Brace, Geo. M., pp. xli, 420 
Brackets, Arct. p. 407 

S. No. 260, 376 



588 



INDEX 



Brass, Prod. Mfg. p. 58 

S. No. 92. 94. 352. 494 
Brazil, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 124, 
Children p. 507, Read. p. 
542 
S. No. 304 to 311 
Bread, Eat & Wear p. 553 

S. No. 341, 410 
Break, Break, Break — Tennyson, 

Read. p. 531 
Breakwaters 

S. No. 256, 374, 430, 492, 499, 
556 
Breathing, Hyg. p. 452 
Breeding Stock, Farm M. p. 302 
Brick, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 432 
to 438, Home Geo. p. 565 
S No. 6, 8, 32. 138, 152, 282, 
398, 400, 524 
Bridges, Geo. pp. 6, 12, 21, 22, 23, 
24, 25, 26, 29, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 71, Trans, p. 84, Cities 
p. 223, Ind. Dsn. pp. 391, 
395, Arct. p 423, Metals p. 
429, Con. Stone B. & T. 
p. 435 
S. No. 27, 61, 348, 366, 
379, 391, 392, 442, 456, 
470, 472, 500 
Brigs of Ayr, The — Burns, Lit. 

Sub. p. 243 
British Columbia, Geo. p. 16 

S. No. 274 to 277 
British Empire, Pol. Geo. p. 125 
British Isles, For. Beg. p. 154, 
Children p. 586, Trav. & 
Lee. p. 656 
S. No. 347 to 382 
Broadway, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 30 
Bronchos, 

S. No. 182, 186, 188 
Bronze, Prod. Mfg. p. 58 

S. No. 71, 80, 241, 484 
Brook. The — Tennyson, Lit. Sub. 

p. 247 
Brooklyn Bridge, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 27 
Brown, John, Dev. Na. p. 168 
Bruce, Robert, Biog. p. 295, Read. 
p. 532 
S. No. 367 
Brussels, Geo. p. 22, Com. Civ. p. 
200 



S. No. 395 

Bryant, William Cullen, Lit. Sub. 

p. 242 
Bryan, William Jennings, Geo. p. 
12, Farm H. & F. L. p. 
312 
S. No. 181 
Budapest, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 464 
Buddhists. Pol. Geo. p. 129 

S. No. 501 
Buenos Aires, Geo. p. 18 

S. No. 314, 315, 316 
Buffalo, Trans, p. 77, An p. 334, 
PL & An. p. 521 
S. No. 474, 491, 549 
Bufl'alo, N. Y., Geo. p. 6, Trans. 
pp. 80, 81 
S. No. 48 
Building Material, Home Geo. pp. 

564, 570 
Buildings, Arct. pp. 413, 416, Con. 
Stone B. & T. p. 434 
Factory, Arct. p. 401 
Historic Cities p. 218, Arct. p. 
412 
S. No. 6, 7, 8, 29, 87, 90, 91, 
93, 95, 349, 425 
Primitive, Arct. p. 398 

S. No. 113, 205, 281, 298, 331, 
409, 549, 550 
Public, Cities p. 230, Arct. p. 

408 
Religious, Arct. p. 410 

S. No. 324, 350, 425, 451, 458, 
495, 501, 503 
Bulgaria, Geo. p. 24, Pco. p. 40, 
Children p. 509, Read. p. 
545 
S. No. 468, 469 
Bullen, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Burdens on Back. Trans, p. 74 

S. No. 243, 328, 449, 507, 530, 
532. 542, 543 
Burdens in Hand, Trans, p. 74 

S. No. 46. 47. 69, 182, 258, 
516, 531, 544, 555 
Burdens on Head, Trans, p. 74 

S. No. 257, 437, 542, 564, 572, 
578 
Burdens on Shoulders, Trans, p. 
74 
S. No. 108, 175, 266, 327, 487, 
494, 513, 585 
Bureau of Fisheries, Govt. p. 197 



INDEX 



589 



Bureau of Standards, Govt. p. 197 
Burg-os, Geo. p. 23 

S. No. 434 
Burma, Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p. 129, 
Read. p. 547 
S. No. 509 
Burns, Robert, Geo. p. 21, Lit. Sub. 
p. 243 
S. No. 372 
Burro, See Donkey 
Burroughs, John, Lit. Sub. p. 243 
Business, Com. Civ. pp. 204, 206 
Business Letters. Eng. Comp. p. 

262 to 266 
Butte, Mont., Geo. p. 12, Com. Civ. 
p. 201 
S. No. 187 
Butter, Geo. p. 6, Children p. 513, 
Eat & Wear p. 553 
S. No. 45 
Buttresses, Arct. p. 407 
Bvzantine Architecture, Arct. p. 
399 

C 

Cabbage, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 

S. No. 469, 375 
Cabin, Uncle Tom's, Lit. Sub. p 

249 
Cabinet. The U. S., Pol. Geo. p. 
123, Dev. Na. p. 165, Govt. 
193 
S. No. 92 
Cables, Metals p. 430 

S. No. 27, 379 
Cabot, John, F. Am. Na. p. 161 
Cacao, Geo. p. 18, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, 
PI. Asso. p. 325, Food & 
Ckry. p. 371, Eat & Wear 
p. 632 
S. No. 303 
Cactus, Geo. pp. 13. 14. PL Asso. p. 
325, PI. & An. p. 517 
S. No. 209, 235 
Cairo, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. p. 130, 
Cities pp. 218, 225, 234 
S. No. 560 
Calcutta, India, Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 500 
Calhoun, John C, Dev. Na. p. 164 
California, Geo. p. 14 

S. No. 228 to 242 
Call of the Wild, The, Lit. Sub. p. 

248 
Camel, Trans, p. 77, An. p. 335, 
Tex. & CI. p. 377, PI. & 
An. p. 521 



S. No. 504, 564, 565, 518 

Canada, Geo. p. 16, Peo. p. 42, 
Pol. Geo. pp. 128, 129, 
House Dsn. p. 468, Trav. 
.& Lee. p. 655 
S. No. 262 to 277 
Canals, Geo. pp. 6, 11, 15. 22, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 79, 
Dev. Na. pp. 172, 173 
S. No. 48, 154, 251, 252, 253, 
254, 256, 293, 399, 400, 
457, 462, 559 
Cane Sugar, See Sugar Cane 

S. No. 34, 35 
Cannas, PI. Asso. p. 326 

S. No. 91 
Cannes, Geo. p. 23, Zones, p, 113, 
Cities, pp. 227, 235 
S. No. 430 
Cannon, Metals p. 430 

S. No. 39, 73, 254 
Canoe, Trans, p. 78 

S. No. 169 
Cantaloupe, Geo. p. 6, Gdn. Orch. 
& W. p. 284, PI. Asso. p. 
326, Food & Ckry. p. 371 
S. No. 47 
Cantilever Bridge, Ind. Dsn. p. 
391, 395 
S. No. 366, 470 
Canton, Geo. p. 27, Trans, p. 81, 
Mkts. p. 90 
S. No. 514 
Canyon, Geo. v. 13 

S. No. 202, 208 
Cape Colony, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. 
p. 128 
S. No. 582 to 584 
Capes, Ntl. F. p. 103 
S. No. 248, 414 
Cape Town, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. 
p. 130, Read. p. 549 
S. No. 582 
Capitol, U. S., Dev. Na. p. 164, 
Govt. p. 191 
S. No. 87 
Captains Courageous — Kipling, 

Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Carabao, See Buffalo 
Caracas. Geo. p. 20 
S. No. 340, 341 
Caravan, Geo. pp. 27, 29, Trans. 
p. 77 
S. No. 518, 567 
Carding, Tex. & CI. pp. 378, 379, 
Eat & Wear p. 637 
S. No. 286, 409 



590 



INDEX 



Carlstein Castle, Geo. p. 24, Cities 
p. 219, Arch. pp. 412, 413, 
Drawing, p. 456 
S. No. 463 
Carpenter's Geographical Readers, 

Read. p. 535 
Carriages, Trans, p. 76 

S. No. 312, 349, 383, 424, 472, 
547 
Carrier, Trans, p. 73 

S. No. 27, 43, 246, 396, 449, 
518, 548, 578, 580 
Cars, Tranp. p. 84 
Cartier, Jacques,* For. Beg. p. 156, 

F. Am. Na. p. 162 
Cashmere, See Kashmir 
Castles, Arct. p. 461, House Dsn. 
p. 469 
S. No. 376, 432, 451, 463 
Cathedrals, Geo. pp. 21, 22, 23, 
Com. Civ. p. 201, Arct. p. 
410 
S. No. 360, 387, 425, 429, 434, 
451, 458 
.Cattle, Beef, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, 
Trans, p. 77, Dev. Na. p. 
170, Am. Today, p. 179, 
An. p. 333, Tex. & CI. p. 
377, Loc. hid. p. 455, Photo 
pp. 488, 493, 494 
S. No. 127, 140, 185, 186, 301, 
317, 358, 370 
Cattle, Dairy, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, 
An. Hus. p. 291, An. p. 
333, Tex. & CI, p. 377, 
Loc. Ind. p. 445 
S. No. 57, 159, 165, 339, 356, 
364, 371 
Cattle, Draft, An. p. 333 

S. No. 298, 474, 549, 580 
Caucasian Race, Peo. pp. 32 to 40 
S. No. 3, 5, 69, 94, 235, 266, 
306, 355, 378. 390, 396, 
402, 409, 455, 471, 487, 
490 
Causeway, Giant's, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 382 
Celery, Geo. p. 11, Gdn. Orch. & 
W. p. 284, Eat & Wear p. 
636 
S. No. 149 
Celts, Peo. p. 36 

S. No. 366, 373, 378, 443 
Census Office, Govt. p. 197 
Center of Interest, Photo, p. 489 
Central Africa, Children p. 589 



Central America, Geo. p. 17, Pol. 

Geo. p. 124, Children p. 

507, Read. p. 541 
S. No. 291 to 294 
Century Plant, Zones p. 112, PI. 

Asso. p. 326 
S. No. 37, 57, 285, 287, 289 
Cereal Grains, Food & Ckry. p. 

366 
Ceylon, Geo. p. 26, Peo. p. 39, 

House Dsn. p. 466, Cos. 

Dsn. p. 482, Read. p. 550 
S. No. 511, 512 
Chace, Edith P., pp. xl, Tex. & 

CI. p. 374 
Chains, Metals p. 430 

S. No. 75, 471 
Chairs, Arct. p. 407, House Dsn. 

pp. 471, 475 
S. No. 33, 89, 92, 352, 373, 

417, 448, 532 
Chamberlain, James F., pp. xxxii 

141 
Chamonix, Geo. p. 23 

S. No. 427, 428 
Champlain, Samuel de. For. Bee;, p. 

156, F. Am. Na. p. 162 
Champs des Elysees, Geo. p. 23, 

For. Beg. p. 156, Cities 

pp. 217, 222, Gdn. Orch. 

& W. p. 287, Arct. p. 416, 

House Dsn. p. 468 
S. No. 422 
Change of Seasons, Earth N. p. 

144 
Chapultepec, Geo. p. 17, Dev. Na. 

p. 167 
S. No. 283 
Charcoal. Geo. p. 8. Prod. Mfg. p. 

60, Am. Today p. 181, 

Food & Ckry. p. 363, 

Wood p. 423 
S. No. 103. 543 
Chateau-Thierry, Geo. p. 23, Dev. 

Na. p. 174 
S. No. 426 
Chemical Elements, Action of, Ntl. 

F. p. 98 
Chemistry, Voc. Gitid. p. 352 
Cherry, Flowering, PI. Asso. p. 

325 
S. No. 534 
Chestnut, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Gdn. 

Orch. & W. p. 289, PI. 

Asso. p. 325, Wood p. 421 



INDEX 



591 



S. No. 70 

Chicago, Geo. p. 10, Com. Civ. p. 
204, Read, p 539 
S. No. 139 to 144 
Chickens. Geo. p. 7. Prod. Mfg. p. 
51, An. Hus. p. 295, An. 
p. 340, PL & An. p. 521, 
Read. p. 532, Eat & Wear 
p. 556, Home Geo. pp. 565, 
570 
S. No. 56, 338 
Chifu, Geo. p. 27 

S. No. 521 
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage — 
Byron, Lit. Sub. p. 243 
Children p. 511 

Children at Plav, Children pp. 504, 
511 
S. No. 60, 290, 336, 338, 339, 
402, 435, 471, 488 
Children. Farm, Farm H. & F. L. 
p. 313 
S. No. 83, 236, 487, 488, 522 
Children of the World, pp. 503 

to 516 
Children's Bureau, Govt. p. 197 
Children's Clothes, Cos. Dsn. p. 
479 
S. No. 260, 292, 306, 343, 465, 
520, 532 
Child's Garden of Verses, A, 

Read. p. 528 
Chile, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 42, Pol. 
Geo. p. 125, Read. p. 541 
S. No. 322 to 328 
Chilkoot Pass, Geo. p. 15 

S. No. 243 
Chimneys, House Dsn. p. 463 

S. No. 9, 187, 354, 355, 372, 
373 
China. See Pottery 
China, Geo. pp. 26, 27, Pol. Geo. p. 
138, Dev. Na. p. 173, 
House Dsn. p. 466, Chil- 
dren p. 511, Read. p. 547, 
Trav. & Lee. p. 578 
S. No. 513 to 524 
China and Manchuria, Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 513 to 524 
Chinese, Peo. p. 40, Dev. Na. p. 
168, Cos. Dsn. p. 483 
S. No. 227, 519, 520, 521 
Chinese Architecture, Arct. pp. 
400, 404 



S. No. 520, 521 

Chinese Stories, Lit. Sub. p. 248, 

Read. p. 532 
Chinkiang, Geo. p. 27 

S. No. 515 
Chippendale, House Dsn. p. 475 

S. No. 33 
Chocolate. Geo. p. 18. Food & 
Ckry. p. 371, Children p. 
512, Eat & Wear p. 554 
S. No. 303 
Choosing a Farm, Farm M. p. 298 
Chosen (Korea), Geo. p. 28, Peo. 
p. 41, Pol. Geo. p. 139, 
House Dsn. p. 467, Read, 
p. 547 
S. No. 542, 543 
Churches, Com. Civ. p. 201, Arct. 
p. 411 
S. No. 6, 29, 406, 451, 458 
Circle, Draw. p. 455 
Cities, Dev. Na. pp. 166, 167, 170, 
175, Govt. p. 189, Com. 
Civ. p. 210, Cities p. 216 
S. No. 25, 26, 61, 93, 121, 139, 
152, 167, 220, 230 
Cities of the World, The, pp. 215, 

to 237 
Cities, Religious, Cities, p. 236 
Cities, Size, Cities p. 233 
Cities, Types, Cities p. 233 
City Hall, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 28 
City Homes, Arct. p. 411 

S. No. 264, 389, 434, 455, 457 
City Making, Cities p. 216 
City Plans, Cities p. 220 
Civic Beauty, Com. Civ. p. 208, 

Arct. p. 416 
Civil Service, Voc. Guid. p. 354 
Civil War, Dev. Na. p. 167, Am. 
Today, p. 177 
S. No. 73 
Classification of Soils, Soils po 

271, 272 
Clay, Con. Stone B. & T. pp. 437. 
438 
S. No. 581 
Clay, Henry, Dev. Na. p. 164 
Cleanliness Com Civ. p. 203, Hva 

p. 452 
Clearing Land, Soils p. 273 
S. No. 224 



592 



INDEX 



Clerks, Home Geo. p. 569 

Cliff Dwellings, Geo. p. 13, Home 

Geo. p. 562 
S. No. 205 
Cliffs, Sea, Ntl. F. p. 103 

S. No. 432, 439 
Climate, Farm M. p. 301 
Clothes, Working, Cos. Dsn. p. 478 
S. No. 15, 40, 42, 44, 75, 130, 

227, 243 
Clothing, pp. 559 to 561, Prod. 

Mfg. p. 52, Tex. & CI. pp. 

379, 381, Wood p. 423, 

Children p. 516, Eat & 

Wear p. 559, Ho vie Geo. 

pp. 566, 567, 571 
S. No. 146, 551, 552, 566, 570, 

585 
Clothing & Textiles, pp. 374 to 382 
Clothing. Modern, Tex. & CI. p. 

381 
Cloud, The, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Clouds, Earth N. p. 142 

S. No. 102, 264, 276, 282, 441, 

442, 451, 452, 508, 525 
Coal, Eng. Comp. p. 254, Food & 

Ckry. p. 363, Loc. Ind. p. 

439, Read. p. 538, Home 

Geo. pp. 567, 571 
Coal, Anthracite, Geo. p. 7, Prod. 

Mfg. pp. 56. 63, Dcv. Na. 

pp. 1 166. 169, 174, Am. 

Today p. 182 
S. No. 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 
Coal, Bituminous, Prod. Mfg. p. 

56 
S. No. 61, 129 
Coastal Plains, Ntl. F. p. 105 

S. No. 104, 105, 108, 122, 289, 

399 
Coast Forms. Ntl. F. p. 103 
Coast Guard, The, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Coblenz, Geo. p. 22, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 70, Cities, p. 218, Dev. 

Na p. 174, House Adm. p. 

384, Arch. p. 397, Ind. 

Dsn. p. 419, Con. Stone 

B. & T. p. 434 
S. No. 385 
Cochel, W. A., pp. xxxvii, An. 

Hus. p. 291 
Cocoa, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Food & 

Ckry. p. 371, PI. & An. 



p. 317, Eat & Wear p. 
554, Home Geo. p. 565 
S. No. 303 
Coconuts, Prod. Mfg. p. 49. 
Gdn, Orch. & W. p. 289 
Food & Ckry. p. 369 
S. No. 551, 249, 259 
Cocoons, Prod. Mfg. p. 54, Tex. 
& CI. p. 378, Eat & 
Wear p. 560 
S. No. 536, 539, 540 
Codfish, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 
339, PI. & An. p. 522, 
Read. p. 540, Eat & Wear 
p. 557 
S. No. 13 
Cofa Bridge, Geo. p. 19 
, S. No. 330 

Coffee, Geo. pp. 17, 18, 24, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 49, Eng. Comp. p. 
254, PI. Asso. p. 325, Food 
& Ckry. p. 371, Children 
p. 512, 'PI. & An. p. 518, 
Eat & Wear p. 554, Home 
Geo. p. 565 
S. No. 302, 310, 311, 295, 468 
Cohesion, Ind. Dsn. p. 388 
Coke, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg. p. 56. 
Am. Today, p. 181, Food 
& Ckry. p. 363, Home 
Geo. p. 567 
S. No. 62, 68 
Colesworthy, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Collars, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 40 
Collective Industries, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 62 
Cologne, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 393 
Colombia, Geo. p. 19, Dev. Na. p. 
172, Read. p. 541 
S. No. 337 
Colonial Houses, House Dsn. p. 
574 
S. No. 9, 10, 37, 90, 91, 96 
Colonies: 
Dutch. Pol. Geo. p. 133 
English, Pol. Geo. pp. 129, 130 
French, Pol. Geo. p. 132 
German, Pol. Geo. p. 137 
Colorado. Geo. p. 13, Dev. Na. p. 
167, Metals, 426 
S. No. 198 to 205 
Colosseum, Rome, Gen p. 24 
S. No. 452 



INDEX 



593 



Columbia River, Geo. p. 14, Read. 
p. 539 
S. No. 215, 223, 226 
Columbus, Christopber, Pol. Geo. 
p. 126, F. Am. Na. p 161, 
Columns, Arct. p 406 

S. No. 8, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 
340, 450, 460, 478 
Comet, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. p. 146 

S. No. 600 
Commerce, Dep't., Govt. p. 196, 
Home Geo. pp. 568, 572 
Commercial Fertilizer, Soils, p. 275 
Commercial Geography, pp. 87 to 

96 
Communication, Com. Civ. p. 207 
Community, Com. Civ. p. 200 
Community Civics, pp. 200 to 

214 
Como, Lake, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 459 
Composition, Eng. Comp. p. 250 
to 266 

1. Giving Accurate Information, 

Eng. Comp. p. 251 

2. Comparative and General 

Studies, Eng. Comp. p. 255 

3. Studies of Vocations, Eng. 

Comp. p. 257 

3. Recreations, Eng. Comp. p. 

258 

4. Discussion, Eng. Comp. p. 259 

5. Story, Eng. Ccmp. p. 261 

6. Putting Your Rpader Tbere, 

Eng. Comp. p. 262 

7. Hiking Reports, Eng. Comp. 

• p. 262 

8. Business Letters, Eng. Comp. 

p. 262 
Composition, Arct. p. 401, Photo. 

p. 544 
Composition, English, pp. 250 to 

266 
Comstock. Anna Botsford, pp. 

xliii, 517 
Concrete, Am. Today p. 184, Con. 

Stone B. & T. pp. 432, 

436, House Dsn. p. 473 
S. No. 123, 154, 170, 171, 210, 

252, 253 
Concrete, Stone, Brick & Tile, 

pp. 432 to 438 
Concreteness in Education, p. ix 
Congress. Geo. v. 8. Pol. Geo. p. 

123, Dev. Na. p. 174 



S. No. 88 

Congressional Library, Gov. p. 197 
Cities p. 231, Gdn. Orch. 
& IV. p. 286 
S. No. 95 
Conifers, PL Asso. pp. 321, 324 

S. No. 215, 216, 224 
Connecticut, Geo. p. 5 
S. No. 22, 23, 24 
Connelley, Clifford B., pp. xli, 439 
Conquest of Mexico — Prescott, 

Lit. Sub. p. 246 
Conquest of Peru — Prescott, Lit. 

Sub. p. 246 
Conservation, Dev. Na. p. 176 
Constantinople. Geo. o. 25, For. 
Beg. p. 154, Read. p. 545 
S. No. 472, 473, 474 
Containers, Ind. Dsn. p. 388 

S. No. 19, 65, 285, 295, 311, 
334 
Construction, Voc. Guid. p. 350, 

Ind. Dsn. p. 395 
Constructive Industries, Prod. 

Mfg. p. 67 
Conveyor, Ind. Dsn. p. 393 

S. No. 34, 63. 67, 217 
Conwell, Russell H., pp. xlv, 574 
Cookery & Food, pp. 362 to 373 
Cooley, Anna M., pp. xl, Tex. & 

CI. p. 374 
Coolidge, Susan, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Copenbacen, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 404, 405, 406 
Copper, Geo. pp. 5. 11, 12, Prod. 
Mfg. pp. 58, 64, 69, Am. 
Today p. 181, Metals p. 
426, Loc. Ind. p. 440, Read. 
p. 540 
S. No. 15, 155, 156, 157, 187 
Cordaee. Prod. Mfg. p. 69 
Corruth. Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 
152 
S. No. 477 
Corinthian Architecture, Arct. p. 
402 
S. No. 87. 351, 460, 482 
Cork. Geo. p. 21 
S. No. 375 
Corn, Geo. pp. 10, 11, 12, 17, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 46, Dev. Na. p. 
177, Am. Today p. 179, 
Farm C. p. 279, PI. Asso. 
p. 326, Food & Ckry. p. 



594 



INDEX 



367, Read. p. 537, Eat & 

Wear pp. 552, 554 
S. No. 136, 137, 160, 184, 292 
Corn Song — Whittier, Lit. Sub. p. 

248 
Coronado, F. Am. Na. p. 162 
Cortez, Hernando, F. Am. Na. p. 

162 
Costa Rica, Geo. p. 17 

S. No. 294 
Costume Design, pp. 476 to 486 
Costume, Indian, Drazv. p. 461 
S. No. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 

204, 263, 265, 328 
Costumes, Modern, Cos. Dsn. p. 

477 
S. No. 8, 22, 29, 60, 146, 276, 

280, 585 
Cottages, Arct. p. 411, House Dsn. 

pp. 469, 471 
S. No. 355, 368, 373, 411, 445 
Cotter's Saturday Night, The — 

Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 
Cotton, Geo. pp. 5, 9, 10, 17, Prod. 

Mfg. pp. 52, 68, Dev. Na. 

pp. 165, 169, Am. Today 

p. 184, Eng. Comp. p. 254, 

Farm C. p. 281, hid. Sup. 

Home p. 359, Tex. & CI. 

pp. 375, 377, Metals p. 428, 

Children pp. 506, 512, Eat 

& Wear p. 559, Home 

Geo. pp. 566, 571 
S. No. 14, 15, 16, 117, 119, 

124, 125, 207, 286, 420, 

563 
Cottonwood, PI. Asso. p. 325 

S. No. 182 
Coulter, John M., p. xxxviii, 320 
Counties, Govt. p. 189 
Country Home, Farm H. & F. L. 

p. 312 
S. No. 96, 147, 181, 236, 

373 
Courtship of Miles Standish — 

Longfellow, Lit. Sub. p. 

245 
Cow The — R. L. Stevenson, 

Read. p. 529 
Cowboys. Geo. p. 12, Loc. Ind. p. 

445, Hyg. p. 448 
S. No. 127, 186, 188 
Cows, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, An. Hus. 

p. 291 



wS. No. 57, 159, 165, 339, 356, 
364, 371, 403, 591 

Cranes, Ind. Dsn. p. 393 

S. No. 65, 82, 128, 150, 156, 
327, 334 
Crane, White, An. p. 340 

S. No. 535 
Crater Lake, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. F. p. 
103, Soils p. 271 
S. No. 222 
Crevasse, Geo. pp. 14, 16 

S. No. 219, 274 
Crops, Farm, pp. 276 to 283, Soils 
p. 275 
S. No. 47, 108, 147, 149, 175, 
181, 184, 237, 357 
Crossing Brooklyn Ferry, Lit. Sub. 

p. 249 
Crowded Street, The — Bryant, 

Lit. Sub. p. 242 
Cruise of the Cachalot, The, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
Cuba, Geo. p. 17, Pol. Geo. p. 123, 
Dev. Na. p. 171 
S. No. 295 to 299 
Cultivation, Soils p. 273, Farm C. 
p. 277, Metals p. 431 
S. No. 105, 198, 207, 419 
Curry, Charles Madison, pp. xliv, 

527 
Curtiss, Charles F., pp. xxxvi, 267 
Customs of American Indians, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
Cuzeo, Geo. p. 19 

S. No. 331 
Czechoslovakia, Geo. p. 24, Pol. 
Geo. p. 137 
S. No. 463 



Dairy, Geo. pp. 7, 11, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 50, Trans, p. 77, Am. 
Today p. 180, An. Hus. p. 
291, Farm M. p. 303, Voc. 
Guid. p. 348, Loc. Ind. p. 
446 
S. No. 57, 159, 165, 339, 356, 
364, 371, 403, 591 
Daisy, PI. Asso. p. 326 

S. No. 102 
Damascus, Geo. p. 26, For. Beg. p. 
151 
S. No. 493 



INDEX 



595 



Dams, Geo. pp. 12, 13, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 71, Arct. p. 416, Con. 
Stone B. & T. p. 435 
S. No. 170, 210, 569 
Dana, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Danube River, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 470, 471 
Dar-es-Salaam, E. Africa, Geo. p. 
29 
S. No. 574 
Darjeeling, India. Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 508 
Dates, Prod. Mfg. p. 48 

S. No. 556, 566 
David, For. Beg. p. 151 

S. No. 495 
Declaration of Independence, F. 
Am. Na. p. 163, Am. To- 
day p. 177 
Decoration & Design, House — 
Costume Design, pp. 462 
to 486 
Deer, Pro d. Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 336 

S. No. 2, 189, 413 
Delaware, Geo. p. 8 

S. No. 85 
Delhi, India, Geo. p. 26, Com. Civ. 
p. 201 
S. No. 503 
Delta Plains, Ntl. F. p. 105 
S. No. 120, 500, 558 
Denmark, Geo. p. 22, Pol. Geo. p. 
134, House Dsu. p. 467, 
Read. p. 544 
S. No. 404 to 406 
Deposits, Ntl. F. pp. 100, 101, 105, 
Soils, p. 271 
S. No. 192, 193, 194 
Depth of Field, Photo, p. 493 
Derricks, Ind. Dsn. p. 393 

S. No. 69, 70, 122 
Design & Decoration, House' — 
Costume Design, p. 462 
to 486 
Design, Industrial, Including 
Architecture, pp. 388 to 
419 
DeSoto, Hernando, F. Am. Na. p. 

162 
Deserts 
Arid and Semi-Arid, Zones, p. 
114, PI Asso. p. 326 
S. No. 190, 200, 201, 209, 495, 
561 to 566, 569 



Cold, Zones p. 117, PI. Asso. p. 
327 
S. No. 219, 276, 279, 322, 323, 
342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 
440, 441, 448 
Detroit, Geo. p. 11, Loc. Ind. p. 
442 
S. No. 150 to 152 
Development of Our Nation, 

The, pp. 164 to 176 
Diamonds, Prod. Mfg. pp. 59, 64, 
Read. p. 549, Eat & Wear 
p. 560 
S. No. 581 
Dikes, Geo. p. 11 

S. No. 148 
Dionysius, Lit. Sub. p. 256 
Discoverers & Explorers, F. Am. 

Na. pp. 161, 162 
Discussions, Eng. Comp. p. 259 
Dishes, Prod. Mfg. pp. 59, 70, Con. 
Stone B. & T. p. 437, Ind. 
Dsn. pp. 397, 419, Home 
Geo. p. 567 
S. No. 33, 58, 59, 372, 373, 
385, 519 

Distance, Photo, p. 493 
Dist. of Columbia, Geo. p. 8, Pol. 
Geo. p. 123, Govt. p. 191 
S. No. 87 to 95 
Distribution, Prod. Mfg. p. 72, 
Mkts. pp. 87 to 96, Voc. 
Guid. p. 353 
Divides and Passes, Ntl. F. p. 108 

S. No. 195, 243, 251 
Dixie Land, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Docks, Geo. pp. 6, 9, 11, 16, 17, 20, 
22, 23, 28, Prod. Mfg. p 
72, Trans, pp. 80, 81 
S. No. 26, 48, 52, 106, 128, 
157, 164, 174, 267, 280, 
295, 327, 347, 400, 420, 
429, 556 
Dodge, Mary Mapes, Lit. Sub. p. 

243 
Dogs, Geo. pp. 15, 16, Trans, p. 77, 
Am. Today p. 186, An. p. 
336, PL & An. p. 522 
S. No. 118, 190, 204, 246, 279, 
396, 480, 490, 529 
Domes, Arct. pp. 399, 406 

S. No. 28, 87, 95, 384, 451, 
483, 495, 502 



596 



INDEX 



Domestic Science and Domestic 

Arts, p, 356 
Dominica, Geo. p. 18 

S. No. 303 
Donkeys. Trans, p. 76. An. Hits. p. 
294, .1;;. p. 332 
S. No. 340, 378, 496, 522, 557, 
560, 566, 574 
Don't Kill the Birds, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Doorways, .Ire!, p. 403 

S. No. 8. 9, 260, 337. 425, 502 
Doric Architecture, Arct. p. 402 

S. No. 8, 92, 340, 380 
Douglass, Wm. Read. p. 532 
Drainage. Ntl. F. pp. 99, 100, Soils 
p. 274, Farm M. p. 300, 
Metals p. 431 
S. No. 161 
Dramatization, p. xviii 
Drawing, pp. 455 to 461, Loc. Ind. 

p. 441 
Dredge, Geo. p. 18 

S. No. 313 
Dress, Earth N. p. 144, Tex. & CI. 
p. 381, Cos. Dsn. p. 477, 
Home Geo. p. 566 
S. No. 146, 182, 280, 503, 506, 
528 to 533, 551, 552, 572, 
592 
Drift Soil, Soils p. 272 

S. No. 427 
Drilling, Metals p. 430, Loc. Ind. 
p. 451 
S. No. 69, 122 
Drink & Food, Hyg. p. 449 
Dromedary, See Camels. 
Drowned Coasts. Ntl. F. p. 103 

S. No. 277, 299, 307, 374, 382 
Drowned Rivers, Ntl. F. p. 102 

S. No. 39, 51, 100, 264 
Dryer, Charles Redway, pp. xxx, 

45 
Dry Farming, Geo. p. 13, Soils p. 
273 
3. No. 199 
Dublin, Geo. p. 21. Pol. Geo. p. 129. 
Cities pp. 218, 221, Arct. 
pp. 402, 406, Read. p. 543 
S. No. 380 
Ducks, Prod. Mfe. p. 51, An. Hits. 
p. 295, An. p. 340 
S. No. 401 



Dunes, Sand, Ntl. F. p. 99, PL 
Asso. p. 328 
S. No. 223 
Dunn, Arthur Wm., pp. xxxv, 203 
Dutch, t'eo. p. 35, Pol. Geo. p. 133, 
For. Beg. p. 156, Arct. pp. 
409, 411, House Dsn. p. 
467, Cos. Dsn. p. 481, 
Children p. 508 
S. No. 399. 4C0, 402, 403 
Dwarf Trees, PI. Asso. p. 327 
S. No. 535 



Early History, U. S., F. Am. Na. 

p. 163 
Earth Neighbors, pp. 140 to 147 
Earthquakes. Ntl. F. p. 101, Soils 
p. 271 
S. No. 231, 300 
East Africa, British, Geo. p. 29, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 53, Mkts. p. 
94, Zones p. 113, Pol. Geo. 
p. 130 
S. No. 570 to 573 
East Africa (German) Geo. p. 29, 
Zones p. 113, Pol. Geo. p. 
137 
S. No. 574 
East Indian Architecture, Arct. 
pp. 400, 404, House Dsn. 
p. 469 
S. No. 499 501 
East Indies, Geo. p. 28 
S. No. 545 to 554 
Eat, Some Things We, pp. 551 to 

561 
Eaves, House Dsn. p. 473 

S. No. 445 
Economics. Home, See Foods and 

Cookery, pp. 362 to 373 
Ecuador, Geo. p. ly 

S. No. 336 
Edinburgh, Scotland, Geo. p. 21, 
Pol. Geo. p. 128 
S. No. 365 
Editorial Board, pp. xxv. to xlii 
Education, Am. Today p. 185, 
Govt. p. 196, Com. Civ. 
pp. 203, 208, Farm H. & 
F. L. p. 314 
Eggleston. Edward, Lit. Sub. p. 
243 



INDEX 



597 



Eggs, Farm M. p. 303, Food & 
Ckry. p. 366, Eat & 
Wear p. 556, Home Geo. 
pp. 565, 570 
S. No. 375 
Egypt, Geo. p. 28, Peo. p. 39, Pol. 
Geo. pp. 128, 130, For. 
Bey. p. 151, Con. Stone 
B. & T. p. 436, House 
Dsn. p. 467, Cos. Dsn. p. 
482, Children p. 510, 
Read. p. 548 
S. No. 558 to 569 
Egyptian Architecture, Arct. pp. 
399, 405, 410 
S. No. 561, 564, 565, 566, 568 
Eiffel Tower, Cities p. 217, Arct. 
p. 413 
S. No. 421 
Electrician, Voc. Guid. p. 351 
Electricity, Ind. Dsn. p. 391, Home 
Geo. p. 567 
S. No. 15i, 171 
Elephants. Prod. Mfg. p. 67, 
Trans, p. 77, An. p. 337, 
PI. & An. p. 522 
S. No. 505, 509. 510 
Elevated Railways, Trans, p. 84 

S. No. 31 
Llevation, Climate, Zones p. 118 
Eliot, Charles William, pp. vii, 

xxix 
Elizabethan style of Architecture, 

House Dsn. p. 469 
Elk, Geo. p. 13, PL & An. p. 522, 
Read. p. 535 
S. No. 189 
Ellen's Isle, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 369 
Ellis Island, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 32 
Elm, PL Asso. p. 325 

S. No. 10, 37, 71, 96 
Embargo, Govt. p. 198 
Embroidery, Ind. Dsn. p. 398, Cos. 
Dsn. p. 481 
S. No. 465, 468, 471, 487 
Emmett, D., Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Energy, Solar, Earth N. pp. 142, 

143 
Engineering, Prod. Mfg. p. 70, 
Eng. Comp. p. 255, Trav. 
& Lee. p. 580 
England, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 35, 
Pol. Geo. p. 128, Gdn. 



Orch. & IV. p. 287, Arct. 

pp. 399, 404, 412, House 

Dsn. p. 467, Read. p. 543 

S. No. 347 to 362 

English, p. 238 

English Composition, pp. 250 to 

266 
English Language, Pol. Geo. p. 127 
Ensign, Raymond P., pp. xl, 437 
Equatorial Belt, Zones p. 110 

S. No. 247, 249, 251, 252, 254, 
255, 293, 294, 337, 338, 
570, 571, 572, 573 
Erie Canal, Geo. p. 6, Trans, p. 78, 
Dev. Na. p. 166 
S. No. 43, 48 
Erosion, 
By Water, A r //. F. p. 100, PL 
Asso. p. 328 
S. No. 49, 50, 197, 208, 318, 
363, 407, 576 
Eruption, Volcanic, Geo. pp. 18, 24, 
Ntl. F. p. 107 
S. No. 453, 545 
Eskimo, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 40, 
Prod. Mfg. d. 56, F. Am. 
Na. p. 160, Tex. & CI. p. 
382, Eat & Wear p. 559 
S. No. 343 
Estuaries, Ntl. F. p. 102, Pol. Geo. 

p. 135. 
Ethiopian Race, See Black Race, 
Eucalyptus, Geo. p. 30, Gdn. Orch. 
& W. p. 290, PL Asso. 
pp. 321, 325, 328, Wood p. 
421, Home Geo. p. 564 
S. No. 586 
Europe, Geo. p. 20, Children p. 
508, Read. p. 542 
S. No. 347 to 488 
Evangeline — Longfellow, Lit. 

Sub. p. 245 
Evaporation, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 

S. No. 42, 244, 310, 531 
E\aporation, Solar, Earth N. p. 
142 
S. No. 13, 42, 244. 310, 531 
Excavating, Metals p. 428 

S. No. 250, 251 
Expansion, Dev. Na. p. 171 
Explorers, F. Am. Na. p. 161 
Expression, p. xxiii 
Eye Level, Draw. p. 455 



598 



INDEX 



Factories, Prod. Mfg. pp. 54. 55, 
Dev. Na. pp. 165, 169, 
Com. Civ. p. 204, Cities 
p. 220, Voc. Guid. p. 370, 
hid. Sup. Home p. 407, 
Arct. pp. 408, 415, Home 
Geo. p. 567 
S. No. 11, 12, 14 to 16, 18 to 
20, 22, 23, 24, 40, 41, 62 
to 67, 152, 541 

Factory Processes, Prod. Mfg. p. 
52 

Falls, Geo. pp. 6, 22, 23, 29 

S. No. 49, 50, 318, 407, 444, 
576 

Family, Com. Civ. p. 202 

Faneuil Hall, Geo. p. 5, F. Am. 
. Na. p. 162, Arcl. p. 412, 

Read. p. 536 
S. No. 7 

Farm Crops, pp. 276 to 283 

Farmer, Voc. Guide, p. 348 

Farm Home and Farm Life, pp. 
311 to 317 

Farm Houses, House Dsn. pp. 468, 
470, 476 
S. No. 147, 181, 236, 409 

Farming, see Agriculture, Voc. 
Guid. p. 348 

Farming — General, Farm M. p. 
^301 

Farm Machinery, Geo. p. 12, Dev. 
Na. p. 166, 176, Am. To- 
day p 178, Eng. Comp. 
p. "255, Farm M. pp. 308, 
309, 310, Farm H. & F. 
L. p. 315, Loc. hid. p. 443 
S. No. 44, 136, 160, 161, 166, 

177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 
218, 233, 332, 357 

Farm Management — Farm Ma- 
chinery, pp. 297 to 310 
Farm Methods, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, 
Dev. Na. pp. 166, 176, 
Farm C. p. 277. Farm M. 
p. 301, Farm H. & F. L. 
p. 315, Metals p. 431 
Modern 

S. No. 136, 160, 161, 166, 177, 

178, 179, 180, 181, 198, 
218, 233, 332, 357 

Primitive 



S. No. 298, 388, 419, 479, 488, 
497, 522, 527, 529, 549, 
554, 561, 562 
Farmyard Song — Trowbridge, Lit. 

Sub. p. 247 
Fatigue, Plyg. p. 451 
Feathers, Prod. Mfg. p. 56 

S. No. 56, 216, 239 
Federal Reserve Board, Govt. p. 

197 
Ferdinand and Isabella, For. Beg. 

p. 157 
Ferry Boat, Geo. p. 6, Trans, p. 
79 
S. No. 26, 32, 386 
Ferry Slip, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 26 
Fertilizing. Cm. p. 12, Soils on. 
274, 275, Farm C. p. 274, 
Home Geo. p. 571 
Fibers, Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Farm^ C. 
p. 273, Tex.& CI. pp. 375 to 
379, Eat & Wear p. 559 
S. No. 17, 22, 117, 124, 145, 
268, 553 
Fields, Prod. Mfg. p. 65 

S. No. 104, 105, 137, 178, 
179, 180, 184, 218, 284, 
357. 488, 522, 561. 562 
Figures in Action, Drazv. p. 460 
Filipinos, See Philippines 
Fine Arts, p. 453 
Finland, Geo. p. 25. Tex. & CI. n. 
482, Cos. Dsn. p. 479, Chil- 
dren p. 508 
S. No. 481 
Fins, Pol. Geo. p. 138 

S. No. 481 
Fir, Balsam, PI. Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 162 
Fir, Douglas, PL Asso. p. 324, 
Wood p. 421 
S. No. 216, 224 
Fir, Red, PL Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 222, 228 
Fireplaces, Arct. p. 418, House 
Dsn. pp 463, 471 
S. No. 33, 92, 113, 372 
Firewood, Food & Ckry. p. 263, 
Wood p. 422 
S. No. 124, 467 
Firth of Forth, Geo. p. 21, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 84 
S. No. 366 



INDEX 



599 



Fir Tree, The, Read. p. 532 
Fish, Prod. Mfg. p. 63. Am. To- 
day p. 180, Food &■ Ckry. 
p. 366, Children pp. 506, 
512, Eat & Wear p. 557, 
Home Geo. p. 566 
S. No. 13, 226, 227, 244, 481, 
531 
Fisher, M. L. p. xxxvii, Farm M.- 

p. 297 
Fisheries, Am. Todav p. 180 

S. No. 13, 86, 97, 226, 227 
Fishing Boats, Prod. Mfg. p. 63. 
An. p. 339, Eat & Wear 
p. 557 
S. No. 13, 481, 531 
Fishing Nets, Tex. & CI. p. 381 

*S. No. 226 
Fissures, Geo. p. 14. Nil. F. p. 101 

S. No. 231, 300 
Flags, Tex. & CI. p. 380 

S. No. 100. 242, 254, 260, 280, 
514. 585 
Flashlights, Photo, p. 492 

S. No. 2, 76, 155, 579 
Flax. Prod. Mfg. p. 53 

S. No. 40, 268, 269 
Flood Plains, Ntl. F. p. 105 

S. No. 321, 467, 509, 515, 
549, 561, 564, 580 
Florence, Italy, Geo. p 24, For. 
Beg. p. 154 
S. No. 456 
Florida, Geo. p. 9. Mkts. p. 91. 
Zones p. 115, Read. p. 537 
S. No. 108 to 111 
Flowers, Geo. pp. 7, 23. Gdn. 
Orch. & W. p. 287 
S. No. 423, 444, 534 
Food, Buying, Mkts. pp. 88, 91, 92, 

House A dm. p. 384 
Food Commission, Govt. p. 198 
Food and Drink, Health, Hyg. p. 

449 
Food Givers, Voc. Guid. p. 348 
Food, Preparation, Food & Ckry. 

p. 372 
Food, Service, Food & Ckry. p. 

37 J 
Food and Cookery, pp. 362 to 

373 
Foods and Foodstuffs. Prod. Mfu. 
p. 46, Am. Today p. 178, 
PI. Asso. p. 328, Food & 



Ckry. pp. 364, Wood p. 

424/ Hyg. p. 4-W. Eat 

& Wear p. 552. Home 

Geo, pp. 565, 570 
Forage Crops, Farm C. p. 282 
S- No. J 18. 172. 173. 181., 

183, 235, 317, 338. 408 
Forces, Natural Forms and. pp. 

97 to 108. hid. Dsn. p 

388 
Foreign Beginnings of American 

History pp. 150 to 157 
Foreign Children — R. L. Steven- 
son, Read. p. 529 
Forest Hymn — Brvant. Lit. Sub. 

p. 242 
Forests. Com. Civ. pp. 203, 208, 

PI. Asso. pp. 320 to 324, 

Wood p. 421 
S. No. 70, 102, 162, 169, 195, 

196. 221, 224, 228, 229, 

388, 427 
Forests, Deciduous, PI. Asso. p. 

32.3 
S. No. 38, 70, 73, 169 
Forests, Petrified, PI. Asso. p 

322 
S. No. 206 
Form of the Earth, Earth N. p. 

144 
S. No. 100 
Form Adapted to Material, Ind. 

Dsn. p. 396 
Form Adapted to Purpose. Ind. 

Dsn. p. 396 
For the Little Folks p. 501 
Foundation of American Nation 

pp. 158 to 163 
Fowls, Eat & J J' ear p. 556 

S. No. 56, 216, 401 
France, Geo. p. 23, Pco. p. 37, Pol. 

Geo. p. 131, For. Beg. p. 

156. House Dsn p. 468, 

Children p. 508, Read. n. 

543, Trav. & Lee. p. 578 
S. No. 42i to 431 
French, Frances INI. Lit. Sub. p. 

248 
Frost. Nth F. p. 100 

S. No. 50. 342, 344, 345, 346, 

427, 428 
Fruit, Geo. pp. 6. 8. 12. 17, Prod 

Mfg. pp 48. 66. Dev. Nn 

p. 169, Farm M. p. 303, 



600 



INDEX 



Food & Ckry. p. 370, 
Children pp. 505, 512, Eat 
& Wear p. 552 
S. No. 47, 85, 108, 175, 234, 
236, 238, 259, 294, 551 
Fruit Growing, Farm M. p. 299 
S. No. 44, 108, 175, 237, 390, 
437 
Fuel, Frod. Mfg. p. 69, Dev. No. 
p. 166, Food & Ckry. p. 
363, Wood p. 422 
S. No. 68, 74, 76, 77, 79, 103, 
129 
Fuji-Yama, Japan, Geo. p. 27, Ntl. 
F. p. 107 
S. No. 525 
Fuller. George D., p. xxxviii, PI. 

Asso. p. 320 
Furnishings. Home, Tex. & CI. 
p. 379 
S. No. 33, 417 
Furniture, Arct. p. 417, House 
Dsn. p. 464, 471 to 475 
S. No. 33, 89, 92, 352, 373, 
409, 417, 443 
Furs, Prod. Mfg. p. 56, Cos. Dsn. 
p. 485, Children p. 508 
S. No. 158, 243, 246, 279, 328, 
343, 345, 490 



Gabled Roof, House Dsn. p. 464 

S. No. 354 
Galicia, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 38 

S. No. 465 
Gambrel Roof, House Dsn. pp. 
473, 476 
S. No. 236 
Game, An. pp. 336 to 340, PI. An. 
pp. 520 to 526, Eat & 
Wear p. 557 
S. No. 2, 110, 189, 345, 415, 
577, 578 
Ganges River. Geo. p. 26. Ntl. F. 
p. 105, Hyg. p. 452 
S. No. 500. 501 
Gannets, An. p. 339, PL & An. p. 
522 
S. No. 583 
Garden of the Gods, Geo. p. 13, 
Read. p. 539 
S. No. 201 



•An. 
340, 



59, Eat & 



Garden, Orchard and Wood Lot, 

pp. 284 to 290 
Gardens, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, Dev. 

Na. p. 175, Gdn. Orch. & 

W. p. 284, Voc. Guid. p. 

349, Home Geo. p. 571 
S. No. 47, 83, 137, 149 
Gas, Food & Ckry. p. 363 
Gasoline, Am. Todav p. 182 

S. No. 123 
Gasoline Motors, Prod. Mfg. p. 62. 

Soils, p. 273, Farm M. 

p. 309 
S. No. 44, 151, 161, 178 to 180 
Gatun Lake. Geo. p. 15, Dev. Na. 

p. 173 
S. No. 250 to 253 
Geese, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, 

Hus. p. 295, An. p. 

PL & An. p. 523, Eat 

& Wear p. 557 
S. No. 216 
s Gemila, Read. p. 533 
Gems, Prod. Mfg. p. 

Wear p. 561 
S. No. 512, 581 
General Introduction, p. vii 
Geographical Classification, pp. 3 

to 30 
Geography, p. 1 
Geography by Nations (Political 

Geography), pp. 121 to 

139 
Geography, Commercial, Trans, p. 

73, Mkts. p. 87 
Geography, Home, pp. 562 to 573 
Geography, Industrial, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 45 
Geography, Physical, pp. 97 to 108 
Geography, Political, pp. 121 to 13V 
Geography, Some Things We Eat ; 

Some Tliines We Wear, 

pp. 551 to 561 
Georgia, Geo. p. 9 

S. No. 106, 1C7 
Gerlache, Adrien de. Geo. p. 20 

S. No. 345 
Germany, Geo. p. 21, Pol. Geo. p. 

135, For. Beg. p. 157. 4m. 

Today p. 177, Children p. 

509, Read. p. 544 
S. No. 383 to 394 
Germans, Peo. p. 34, Pol. Geo. p. 

136 



INDEX 



601 



Geryon, Lit. Sub. p. 251 
Gettysburg-, Geo. p. 7, Dev. Na. p. 
168 
S. No. 73 
Gettysburg Oration, Lit. Sub. p. 

245 
Geysers, Geo. p. 13, Ntl. F. p. 100 

S. No. 193, 194 
Giant's Causewav, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 382 ' 
Gibraltar, Geo. p. 23, Pol. Geo. p. 
128, Read. p. 546 
S. No. 439 
Gill-over-the ground, PL Asso. p. 
326 
S. No. 359 
Gin, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. p. 52, 
Dev. Na. p. 165, Ind. Sup. 
Home p. 360, Tex. & CI. 
p. 377, Eat & Wear p. 
559, Home Geo. p. 566 
S. No. 124, 125 
Ginning, Tex. & CI. p. 377 
Girders, Ind. Dsn. p. 394 

S. No. 65, 134, 135 
Glacial Lakes, Ntl. F. p. 103 

S. No. 48, 154, 361, 369, 377, 
459 
Glacial Plains, Ntl. F. p. 106 

S. No. 136, 137, 147, 161, 488 

Glacier, Geo. pp. 14, 16, 22, 23, 

Ntl. F. p. 100, Eng. Comp. 

p. 252, Soils p. 270, Read. 

p. 539 

S. No. 219, 274, 275, 408, 427, 

428, 446, 448 

Glaciers, Continental, Ntl. F. p. 101 

S. No. 342, 344, 345, 346 
Glaciers, Effect on Human Affairs, 

Ntl. F. p. 101 
Glaciers. Valley, Ntl. F. p. 100 

S. No. 219, 274, 275, 276, 279, 
408, 427, 428, 446, 448 
Gladness of Nature, The, Bryant, 

Lit. Sub. p. 242 
Glass, Geo. p. 10. Prod. Mfg. pp. 
59, 70, Dev. Na. p. 170, 
Am. Todav p. 184, Metals 
p. 428, Hyg. p. 449, Home 
Geo. p. 568 
S. No. 134, 135 
Gloucester, Mass. (Harbor), Geo. 
p. 5, Read. p. 536 
S. No. 13 



Goats, Geo. p. 22. Prod. Mfg. pp. 
50, 67, An. Hits. p. 295, 
An. p. 334, Tex & CI. p. 
377, PI. & An. p. 523, 
Eat & Wear p. 553 
S. No. 411, 447 
Goethals, George Washington. 
Dev. Na. p. 173 
S. No. 248 to 256 
Gold Mining, Geo. pp. 13, 15, 17. 
Prod. Mfq. pp. 64. 69, Dev. 
Na. p. 170, Am. Todav p. 
182, Metals p. 426, Read. 
p. 549, Eat & Wear p. 561 
S. No. 203, 225, 245, 287 
Goode, J. Paul, pp. xxxi, 87 
Goodyear, Charles, Read. p. 532 
Gorgas, William Crawford, Dev. 
Na. p. 173 
S. No. 248 to 256 
Goteborg, Geo. p. 23 

S. No. 420 
Gothic Architecture, Arct. pp. 399, 
404 
S. No. 350, 352, 360, 387, 425, 
434 458 
Gould, Miss', Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Government, pp. 188 to 199, Home 
Geo. pp. 569, 572 
City, Govt. p. 189, Cchii. Civ. pp. 

210, 212 
Executive, Govt. p. 192 
Judicial, Govt. p. 192 
Legislative, Govt. p. 191 
Local, Govt. p. 187 
National, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. 
p. 191, Com. Civ. p. 213 
Rural Community, Com. Civ. p. 

212 
Self, Com. Civ p. 210, 211 
State, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. p. 

190 
Townships, Govt. p. 189 
Work, Govt. p. 193 
Grains, Prod. Mfg. pp. 46, 65, Dev. 
Na. p. 170, Farm M. p. 
302, Food & Ckry. p. 366, 
Children pp. 505. 512, 
Home Geo. pp. 566, 570 
S. No. 137, 147, 177, 184, 199, 
218, 233, 284, 357, 479, 
497, 527, 529, 550 
Granada. Geo. p. 23, For. Beg. p. 
157 



602 



INDEX 



S. No. 436 

Grand Canyon of Col., Geo. p. 13, 
Ntl. F. p. 102, Lit. Sub. p. 
243, Read. p. 539 
S. No. 208 
Granite, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. n 
59, Am. Today p. 183, 
Voc. Guid. p. 371, Con. 
Stone B. & T. p. 43-i. Lor. 
Ind. p. 441, 7/yg. p. 451 
S. No. 3, 7, 95, 146, 569 
Grapes, Geo. pp. 15, 22, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 48, Zones p. 114. Gdn. 
Orch. & W. p. 288, PL 
Asso. p. 326, Pood & 
Ckry. p. 370, Hvq. p. 449 
P/. <";• An. p. 518, £af 
&• Wear p. 552 
S. No. 236, 319, 390 
Grasslands, PI. Asso. p. 324 
Gravity, Ind. Dsn. p. 390 
Gratz, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 461 
Grazing, Prod. Mfg: p. 66, Farm 
M. p. 299 
S. No. 127, 186, 190, 301, 317, 
480, 589 
Great Lakes, Trans, p. 80, Am. 
Today p. 187 
S. No. 154 
Great Wall of China, Geo. p. 27 

S. No. 524 
Great, Wide, Beautiful, Wonder- 
ful World, Lit. Sub. p. 
249 
Grecian Architecture, Arct. pp. 
399, 404 
S. No. 87, 89, 90, 91, 351, 
475, 477. 478 
Greece, Geo. p. 25, Peo. p. 37. Pol. 
Geo. p. 135, For. lies,, p. 
152, Children p. 587, Read. 
p. 546, Trav. & Lee. p. 577 
S. No. 475 to 480 
Greenland, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 40. 
Zones p. 118, House Dsn. 
p. 468, Read. p. 550 
S. No. 342, 343 
Greenwich, En?.. Geo. p. 20, Earth 
N. p. 144 
S. No 353 
Gregory, William M„ pp. xliv, 

629 
Grill Work, House Dsn. pp. 472, 
473 



Grindelwald, Switzerland, Geo. p. 
24 
S. No. 445, 446, 447 
Grinding, Ind. Dsn. p. 396, Eat & 
Wear p. 553 
S. No. 292, 498 
Ground Water, Ntl. F. p. 99 
Guadeloupe, Geo. p. 18, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 49 
S. No. 302, 300 
Guam, Geo. p. 28, Zones p. 113, 
Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dct. Na. 
p. 171, Govt. pp. 196, 198 
S. No. 554 
Guatemala, Geo. p. 17 

S. No. 291 
Guayaquil, Geo. p. 19 

S. No. 336 
Guidance, Vocational, pp. 347 to 

355 
Gulls, An. p. 340 
S. No. 415 



H 



Habits, Health — Hygiene, pp. 448 

to 452 
Hair, Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 379 
S. No. 138, 140, 147, 185, 188, 
335, 411, 447, 564, 565 
Hamburg. Germany, Geo. p. 22, 

Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities pp. 

217, 237 
S. No. 386 
Hamilton, Alexander, Dev. Na. p. 

165 
Hampton Roads, Va.. Geo. p. 8, F. 

Am. Nc. p. 162, Dev. Na. 

p. 168, Read. p. 535 
S. No. 100 
Hankow, Geo. p. 27, Cities p. 228, 

Ant. p. 410 
S. No. 517 
Hannah Binding Shoes — Lucy 

Larcom, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Hans Brinker — Dodge, Lit. Sub. 

p. 243 
Harbors, Mkts. p. 89, Ntl. F. p. 

104, Pol. Geo. n. 128. Com. 

Civ. p. 204, Cities p. 225, 

Eng. Comp. p. 252, Home 

Geo. p. 568 
S. No. 25, 26, 257, 277, 278, 

299, 304, 313, 314, 374, 

430, 489, 492, 499, 511, 



INDEX 



603 



514, 556, 574, 591 
Hardanger Fjord, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 411 
Harness, Prod. Mfg. p. 55 
Harpers Ferrv, Geo. p. 8, Dev. Na. 
p. 168, Cities pp. 223, 226 
S. No. 101 
Harrow. Geo. pp. 12, 19, 28, Dev. 
Na. p. 166, Soils p. 273, 
Farm M. p. 309 
S. No. 179, 33^, 549 
Hart, Albert Bushnell, pp. xxxiii, 

148, 158 
Harte, Bret, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Hardest, Farm C. p. 278, Farm 
M. p. 310, Ind. Dsn. p. 
395, Metals p. 431, Hyg. 
p. 452, Home Geo. p. 571 
o. No. 136, 160, 166, 181, 199, 
357 
Harvest of the Sea, An. p. 339 
Harvey, Lorenzo Dow, p. xxxix, 

Ind. Sup. Home p. 358 
Hathawav, Anne, Geo. p. 20. Lit. 
Sub. p 247, Gdn. Orch. 
& W. p. 286, Arct. p. 412 
S. No. 355 
Hats. Cos. Dsn. pp. 539. 540 

S. No. 290, 485, 529, 530, 537, 
585 
Havana. Geo. r>. 17. Pol. Geo. P. 
123, Am. Today p. 177, 
Cities p. 237 
S. No. 295, 296 
Hawaii, Geo. p. 16, Peo. p. 39, 
Pol. Geo. p. 123, Dev. Na. 
p. 171, Com. Civ. p. 201, 
Cos Dsn. p. 484, Children 
p. 507, Read. p. 550 
S. No. 259 to 261 
Hawthorne. Nathaniel, Lit. Sub. p. 

244 

Hay, Geo. pp. 12. 22. Prod. Mfg. 

pp. 60, 66, Farm C. p. 282 

S. No. 181, 183, 185, 232, 388, 

408. 454 

Headdress, Cos. Dsn. pp. 480, 486 

S. No. 168. 182. 26!i, 411 
Health — Air & Light, Hyg. p. 

451 
Health, Com. Civ. p. 203 
Health — Food & Drink, Hyg. p. 

449 
Health — Work, Hyg. p. 449 



Hearing, Hyg. p. 449 

Meat, Ntl. F. p. 101, Home Geo. 

pp. 567, 571 
Hellenic People, Peo. p. 37 

S. No. 476, 479 
Heidi, Spyri, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Heights of Abraham, The, Lit. 

Sub. p. 248 
Hellenic People, Peo. p. 37 
Hemp, Geo. pp. 17, 28, 29, Prod. 

Mfg. n. 53. Dev. Na. p. 

171, Farm C. p. 282, PI. 

Asso. p. 325, Tex. & CI. 

pp. 376, 378, PI. & An. p. 

520 
S. No. 289, 552, 553, 571 
Mcneqnen, Prod. Mfg. p. 53 
S. No 289 

Herbs, PI. Asso. p. 326 

I Tereford Cattle, Geo. pp. 12, 21, 

An. Hits. p. 292 
S. No. 185, 358 
Hero Tales from American His- 
tory — Roosevelt & Lodge, 

Lit. Sub. p. 246 
Herring, An. p. 339 
Hiawatha, Lit. Sub. pp. 241, 245, 

Children p. 506, Read. p. 

530 
S. No. 158, 168, 169 
Hides, Geo. n. 16. Prod. Mfg p. 

55, Eat & Wear p. 561, 

Home Geo. p. 567 
S. No. 272 
Highlanders — Scotch, Geo. pp. 16, 

21, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 
S. No. 266, 366, 373 
Hikes, Out Door L. p. 342 
Hiking Reports, Eng. Comp. p. 262 
Hills. Geo. p. 19, Ntl. F. p. 108 
S. No. 73, 127, 262, 321, 479, 

480, 496, 497, 530 
Himalayas, The, Geo. p. 26, Ntl 

F. p. 106, Zones p. 113 
S. No. 508 
Hippopotamus, Geo. p. 29, Prod 

Mfg. p. 51, An. p. 337 
S. No. 577, 578 
Historical Associations — R. L. 

Stevenson, Read. p. 529 
Plistoric Buildings, Cities, p. 218, 

Arct. p. 412 



604 



INDEX 



S. No. 6, 7, 8, 29, 87, 90, 349, 
351, 353, 435, 463 

Historic Homes, Home Geo. p. 643 
S. No. 9, 96, 113, 354, 355, 
362, 372 
History & Civics, p. 148 
History and Literature, Eng. 

Comp. p. 252 
Hobart, Geo. p. 30, Cities p. 223, 

Read. p. 549 
S. No. 590 
Hoboken, Cities pp. 226, 237, Read. 

p. 536 
S. No. 52 
Hogs, Geo. p. 12, Am. Today p. 

179, An. Hus. p. 295, An. 

p. 336, Loc. Ind. p. 446, 

PI. & An. p. 523 
S. No. 122, 172, 183 
Holcomhe. Artlmr Norman, pp. 

xxxi, 191 
Holland, Geo. p. 22, Peo. p. 35, 

Pol. Geo. p. 133, For. Beg. 

p. 155, Children p. 508, 

Read. pp. 530, 622 
S. No. 399 to 403 
Holmes. Oliver Wendell, p. xiv 
Home, Com. Civ. p. 202, Cities p. 

231, Tex. & CI. p. 426, 

Arct. p. 411, House Dsn. 

p. 462, Home Geo. pp. 563, 

564, 569 
Home, barm, and Farm Life, p. 

311 to 317 
Home Geography, pp. 562 to 573 
Home, Industries Supplying the. 

pp. 358 to 361 
Home Lite — Cbildren of World. 

p. 511 
Homes, Arct. p. 411, House Dsn. 

pp. 462 to 476, Home Geo. 

pp. 564, 569 
Homes — Historic, Arct. p. 412, 

Home Geo. p. 564 
S. No. 9, 37, 91, 96, 113, 354, 

355, 362, 372 
Homes — Primitive, Children, p. 

514 
Homes — Simple, Home Geo. p. 

563 
S. No. 113, 205, 373, 402, 409, 

411, 517, 533, 546 
Homespun, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 
Homestead Aet, Com. Civ. p 

203 



Home Sweet Home — J. Howard 

Payne, Lit. Sub. p. 249, 

Read. p. 531 
Hongkong, China, Geo. p. 26, Pol. 

Geo. p. 128 
S. No. 513 
Honolulu. Geo. p. 16, Cos. Dsn. p. 

539, Read. p. 550 
S. Imo. 260, 261 
I loratius at the Bridge, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Horse Cars, Trans, p. 76 

S. No. 474 
Ibuses, Geo. pp. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 

20, 22, 25, Prod. Mfg. p. 

f>7 Trans, p. 75, An. p. 

331, Tex. & CI. p. 376, 

Loc. Ind. p. 455, PI. & 

An. p. 523 
Horses, Carriage, An. Hus. p. 294, 

An. p. 332 
S. No. 195. 207, 221, 312, 383 
Horses, Draft, An. Hus. p. 293, 

An. p. 331 
S. No. 42, 71, 136, 138, 149, 

166, 198, 218, 357, 398 
Horses, Saddle, Trans, p. 75, An. 

Hus. p. 294, An. p. 332, 

Photo, p. 488 
S. No. 71, 127, 186, 188, 193, 

464, 494, 585 

I forticnlture, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, See 

Orchards. 
S. No. 44, 85, 175, 234, 236, 

237, 238, 302, 303, 319, 

390, 437. 530 
Hosic, James Fleming, pp. xxxvi, 

Eng Comp. p. 250 
Hotel, House Dsn. p. 473 

S. No. 441 
Hot Springs, Ntl. F. p. 99 

S. No. 192, 193. 194 
House, Cities p. 236, House Dsn. 

pp. 462 to 476 
Houseboats. Trans, p. 78, Arct. p. 

413 
S. No. 457, 514, 546 
House Desien and Decoration, pp. 

462 to 476 
House Design and Decoration: 

Costume Design, pp. 462 

to 486 
Household Administration, pp. 

383 to 385 



INDEX 



605 



Housekeeping, Children pp. 506, 

572 
Housekeepiner. Primitive, Children 

p. 515 
House Planning, House Adm. p. 

385 
Housework, House Adm. p. 

384 
How People Travel, Eng. Comp. 

p. 256 
How Machinery Helps, Eng. 

Comp. p. 255 
How the Leaves Came Down, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
How to Study Stereographs and 

Slides, p. xi 
How to Use Stereographs & 

Slides, p. xv 
Hudson. Henry, F. Am. Na. p 

160 
S. No. 39, 51 
Hudson River. Geo. p. 6, Trans, p. 

79, Com. Civ. p. 200 
S. No. 38, 39, 51 
Humped Cattle, An. p. 334 

S. No. 548, 562 
Hungary, Geo. p. 24, Pol. G. 137 

S. No. 464 
Hunting, Prod. Mfg. p. 63, Eng. 

Comp. p. 259 
S. No. 2, 110, 345, 415, 577, 

578 
Husbandry, Animal, pp. 291 to 

296 
Huskers. The — Whittier, Lit. Sub. 

p. 248 
Hygiene — Health Habits, pp. 

448 to 452 
Hvnin to the North Star — 

Bryant, Lit. Sub. p. 243 



Tee, Geo. p. 20, Ntl. F. p. 100 

S. No. 342, 344, 345, 346 
Ice Fields, Ntl. F. p. 101 

S. No. 344, 345, 346 
Tee Fields, work of, Ntl. F. p. 101 
Idaho, Geo. p. 13, Read. p. 539 

S. No. 190 
If I Were a Sunbeam — Lucy 
Larcom, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Tguazu Falls, Geo. p. 18 

S. No. 318 



I Have a Little Shadow — R. L. 

Stevenson, Read. p. 529 
Illinois, Geo. p. 10 

S. No. 139 to 148 
Immigration, Geo. pp. 6, 19, Dev. 
Na. pp. 168, 175, Govt. p. 
197 
S. No. 32, 319 
Immigration Bureau, Govt. p. 197 

S. No. 32 
Implements, Farm M. pp. 208, 209, 
hid. Dsn. p. 395 
S. No. 178, 179, 180, 198, 332, 
488, 549, 561 
Inca, Geo. p. 19 
S. No. 331 
Inclined Planes, Ind. Dsn. pp. 392, 
393 
S. No. 62, 75, 181, 216, 440 
Independence, Farm H. & F. L. 

p. 313 
India, Geo. p. 26, Peo. p. 39, Pol. 
Geo. p. 129, Com. Civ. p. 
201, House Dsn. p. 468, 
Read. p. 548, Trav. & 
Lee. p. 578 
S. No. 499 to 508 
Indiana, Geo. p. 10 

S. No. 136 to 138 
Indian Folk Stories, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Indians, Geo. pp. 11, 12, 13, 16, 19, 
Peo. p. 41. F. Am. Na. p. 
160, 161, House Dsn. p. 
474, Cos. Dsn. p. 486, Chil- 
dren pp. 506, 514, Read. 
p. 548 
S. No. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 
204, 211, 244, 263, 265, 
328 
Indian Stories, Read. p. 530 
Industrial Arts, p. 386 
Industrial Design Including Ar- 
chitecture, pp. 388 to 419 
Industrial Geography, pp. 45 to 72 
Industries, Prod. Mfg. pp. 45 to 
72, Am. Today pp. 178 to 
188, Ind. Sup. Home pp. 
358 to 361, Tex. & CI. 
pp. 374 to 382, Wood pp. 
420 to 449, Metals pp. 425 
to 431, Con. Stone B. & 
T. pp. 432 to 438 
Industries Supplying the Home, 
pp. 358 to 361 



606 



INDEX 



Inland Voyage — Stevenson, Lit. 

Sub. p. 247 
Innsbruck, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 460 
Interesting Sights, Eng. Comp p. 

253 
Interior, Arct. p. 414, Photo, p. 

494 
S. No. 33, 88, 89, 92, 352, 372, 

417, 533 
Interior, Department of, Govt. p. 

196 
International Relations, Govt. p. 

198 
Interstate Commerce Com. Govt. 

p. 197 
Ionic Architecture, Arct. p. 402 

S. No. 9, 89, 90, 91, 384 
Iowa, Geo. p. 12 

S. No. 170 to 173 
Ireland, Geo. p. 21, Peo. p. 36, 

Pol. Geo. p. 129, House 

Dsn. p. 469, Read. p. 542 

S. No. 374 to 382 

Irish, Peo. p. 36, For. Beg. p. 155 

S. No. 374, 375, 378, 380, 381 

Iron. Geo. pp. 7, 10, 11. Prod. Mfg. 

pp. 57. 64. 69. Am. To- 
day p. 180, Euti. Comp. 

p. "255, Voc. Guid. p. 350, 

Metals p. 427, Loc. hid. 

p. 440, Read. \\ 538 
S. No. 62, 63, 64. 128, 154, 

163, 164 
Iroquois, F. Am. Na. p. 160 

S. No. 265 
Irrigation, Geo. p. 13. Prod. Mfg. 

p. 61, Dev. Na. p. 176 

Com Civ. p. 203, Eng. 

Comp. p. 253, Soils p. 274, 

Gdn. Orch. & W . p. 285, 

Farm M. p. 300 
S No. 104, 199, 209, 210, 237, 

527, 528, 530, 549, 564, 

569 
Irving, Washington, Lit. Sub. p. 

244 
Islands, AW. F. pp. 104, 105 . 

S. No. 25, 99, 256, 369, 382, 

401 
Isle of Beauty, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Isthmus. Ntl. F. p. 104 

S. No. 432 
Ttaly, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 134, 

For. Beg. p. 153, House 



Dsn. p. 469, Read. p. 546 
S. No. 450 to 459 
Ivory, Prod. Mfg. p. 61, Eat & 
Wear, p. 561 
S. No. 505, 509, 573, 577, 578 
[vy, Boston, 77. Asso. p. 326 

S. No. 37 
Ivy, English, PI. Asso. p. 326 
S. No. 354, 362, 376 



Jack Frost, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Jackson, Helen Hunt, Lit. Sub. p. 

244 
Jackson, Patrick, Dev. Na. p. 165 
Jacobs, Harry W., pp. xlii, 509 
Jaipur, India, Geo. p. 26, Trans, p. 
78. Cities p. 222, An. p. 
337 
S. No. 504, 505 
Jamaica, Geo. p. 18, Pol. Geo. p. 
128, Read. \\ 550 
S. No. 301 
Japan, Geo. p. 27, Peo. p. 41. Prod. 
Mfg. p. 68, Pol. Geo. p. 
139, Cities pp. 219, 230, 
233, Arct. pp. 401,404, 410, 
House Dsn. p. 469, Chil- 
dren, pp. 509, 510, Read. 
p. 546, Trav. & Lee. p. 
578 
S. No. 525 to 541 
Japanese Architecture, Arct. pp. 
401, 404 
S. No. 526, 533 to 536 
Tardine, W. M., p xxxvii, Farm 

C. p. 276 
Java, Geo. p. 28. Pol. Geo. p. 133. 
Ntl. F. p. 107 
S. No. 545 
Jefferson, Mark, pp. xxx, 31 
Jefferson. Thomas, Dev. Na. p. 
165 
S. No. 80, 87, 91 
Jericho Road, Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 496 
Jersey Cattle, Geo. p. 21. Prod. 
Mfg. p. 67, An. Hits. p. 
291, An. p. 379 
S. No. 364 
rersey Island, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 364 
Jerusalem, Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p. 



INDEX 



607 



137, For. Beg. p. 151, 
Cities pp. 217, 237, Lit. 
Sub. p. 249 
S. No. 4S5 
Jewelry, Mfg., Geo. p. 5, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 69, Eat & Wear, 
p. 561 
S. No. 21, 512 
Jews, Peo. p. 38, Mkts. p. 88, Pol. 
Geo. p. 138 
S. No. 485, 497, 498 
T ob, Lit. Sub. p. 258 
Toffre, Joseph Jacqvte Cesaire, 
Geo. p. 10, Dcv. Na. p. 
174 
S. No. 146 
Johannesburg, Geo. p. 29 

S. No. 579 
lohnson, Emery R., pp. xxx, 73 
fordal Valley, Geo. p. 22, Ntl. F. 
p. 100 
S. No. 408 
Jugo-Slavia, Geo. p. 24 
Juniper, PI. Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 206 
Justice, Dept, Goi't. p. 195 

S- No. 89 
Just So Stories — Kipling, Lit. 
Sub. p. 244 



K 



Kaffirs, Peo. p. 43 

S. No. 581 
Kangaroos. Geo. p. 30, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 55, An. p 338, PI. & 
An. p. 523 
S. No. 588 
Kansas, Geo. p. 12, Ntl. F. p. 106, 
Zones p. 116 
S. No. 183 to 186 
Kansk, Siberia, Geo. p. 28. Peo. p. 
38, Cos. Dsn. p. 482 
S. No. 544 
Karnak, Egypt. Geo. p. 29, Com. 
Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 219, 
Arct. pp. 399, 404, Con. 
Stone B. & T. pp. 434, 
436 
S. No. 568 
Kashmir. Geo. p. 26, Peo. p. 39, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 54, Pol. 
Geo. p. 129, Ind. Sup. 
I Ionic p. 360, House Dsn. 
p. 469, Cos. Dsn. p. 483 



S. No. 506 
Keats, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Kenihvorth, Scott, Lit. Sub. p. 246 
Kentucky, Geo. p. 9, Farm C. p. 
281, Read. p. 537 
S. No. 112, 113 
Kerchief, Cos. Dsn. pp. 480, 481 
Kerosene, See Oil 
Key, Francis Scott, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Kief, Russia, Geo. p. 25, Cities, p. 
222, Food & Ckry. p. 365 
S. No. 486, 487 
Killarnev, Geo. p. 21, Lit. Sub. p. 
249 
S. No. 377, 378 
Kimberley, Geo. p. 29, Peo. p. 43, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 64, Read, p. 
549 
S. No. 581 
Kim — Kipling, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Kimonos, Cos. Dsn. p. 484 

S. No. 532, 534, 535, 536 
Kipling, Rudyard, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Kirby, C. Valentine, pp. xlii, 453 
Kiryu, Japan, Geo. p. 27, Peo. p. 
41, Prod. Mfg. p. 68 
S. No. 539, 540, 541 
Korea, See Chosen 
Kremlin. The. Gen. p. 25. Cities 
pp. 217, 219, 236, Arct. p. 
399 
S. No. 483 



Labor, Farm M. p. 306 

Labor and Equipment, Farm M. p 

306 
Labor and Field Crops, Farm M. 

p. 307 
Labor and Fruit Crops, Farm M. 

p. 307 
Labor and Live Stock, Farm M. p. 

307 
Labor Disputes, Dcv. Na. pp. 168, 

170, Govt. p. 197 
Labrador, Geo. p. 16, Trans, p. 77, 

An. p. 336, Hyg. p. 452, 

Cos. Dsn. p. 485, PL & 

An. p. 522 
S. No. 279 
Lady of the Lake, The — Scott. 

Lit. Sub. p. 246 



608 



INDEX 



La Guaira, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 34, 
Mkts. p. 88, Zones p. 110. 
Cities pp. 217, 232, Food 
& Ckry. p. 365, House 
Dsn. p. 462 
S. No. 338, 339 
Lake District. Eng., Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 361, 362 
Lakes, AM. P. p. 102, Horn? GVo. 
p. 573 
Glacial, Ntl. F. p. 103 

S. No. 48, 154, 361, 369, 377, 
459 
Non Glacial. Ntl. F. p. 103 

S. No. 222, 293 
Plains. Ntl. F. p. 105 
S. No. 47, 149, 166 
Lake Grasmere, Geo. p. 21, Gdn. 
Orch. & W. p. 287 
S. No. 361 
Lakes, Effect on Human Affairs. 

Ntl. F. p. 103 
Landscape, Draw. p. 460, Photo. 
pp. 496 to 498 
S. No. 38, 51, 102, 276, 288. 
427, 444, 446, 448, 508 
Landscape Gardening, Gdn. Orch. 
& W. p. 285 
S. No. 10, 36. 37, 91, 93, 95, 
259. 360, 362, 535 
Lapland. Geo. p. 22. Peo. p. 40. 
Zones p. 120, An. p. 336 
Food & Ckry. p. 365, 
Tex. & CI. p. 382, Cos. 
Dsn. p. 479, Children p. 
508, Eat & Wear p. 552 
S. No. 413 to 415 
Larcom, Lucy, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
La Salle. Rene Robert Cavelier. 
de, Sieur, F. Am. Na. p. 
160 
Lasso, Geo. p. 12 

S. No. 186 
Latin People in America, Peo. p. 
34 
S. No. 306, 319, 336, 337, 339 
Latin People in Europe. Peo. p. 37 

S. No. 423, 438, 455, 471 
Latitudes, Hich, Earth N. p. 143 
S. No. 243 to 246, 279, 328. 
342 to 346 
Lauxidry, House Adm. p. 384 

S. No. 40, 431, 455 
Lauterbrunnen Valley, Geo. p. 23 
S. No. 444 



Lava, Soils p. 272 

S. No. 453 
Lawns, PL Asso. p. 323 

S. No. 37, 91, 316, 482, 586, 
587 
Lawrence, Mass., Geo. p. 5, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 68, Cities p. 220, 
Ind. Sup. Home, p. 360, 
Read. p. 536 
S. No. 14 to 18 
Lead, Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, 
Metals p. 426 
S. No. 176 
Leak in the Dike — Cary, Read. p. 

542 
Leather, Geo. po. 5, 16, Prod. Mfn. 
p. 55, Eat & Wear p. 561, 
Home Geo. pp. 567, 571 
S. No. 11, 12, 41, 272 
Leather Shoes, Geo. p. 5, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 69 
S. No. 11, 12, 41 
Leaves of Plants, PI. Asso. pp. 
321 324 329 
S. No.' 44, 71, 238, 249, 259, 
294, 551, 574 
L'Enfant, Dev. Na. p. 164 
Legumes, Food & Ckry. p. 368 

S. No. 118, 183, 562 
Lehnerts, E. M. pp. xxxii, 121 
Levees, Am. Today, p. 187, Com. 
Civ. p. 204, Cities p. 226, 
Read. p. 537 
S. No. 119, 148 
Leverage, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 

S. No. 65, 130, 147, 156, 366, 
449, 581 
Levers, Ind. Dsn. pp. 391, 393 

S. No. 130, 147, 156, 250, 418 
Lewis & Clark, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Lexington, Mass., Geo. p. 5, F. 
Am. Na. p. 163, Com. Civ. 
p. 202, Cities, p. 218, Arct. 
p. 400, House Dsn. p. 475, 
Read. p. 537 
S. No. 10 
Liberty Bell, Geo. p. 7, Govt. p. 
199 
S. No. 80 
Liberty Bonds, Dev. Na. p. 174 
Librarian, Voc. Guid. p. 354 
Library, Govt. p. 197, Gdn. Orch. 
& W. p. 286 
S. No. 95 



INDEX 



609 



Life Saving Corps, Geo. p. 8, Govt. 

p/194, Com. Civ. p. 204 
S. No. 99 
Light, Earth N. p. 142, Com. Civ. 

p. 204, Ind. Dsn. p. 391, 

Hyg. p. 451, Photo, p. 490 
Light, Fixtures, Arct. p. 418 
Light, Relation to Plants, PI. Asso. 

p. 328 
Lime, Am. Today p. 184 
Lincoln, Abraham, Geo. pp. 9. 10, 

Lit. Sub. p. 245, Read. p. 

530 
S. No. 73, 88, 91, 92, 113, 146 
Linen, Geo. p. 16, Prod. Mfg. P- 

68, Tex. & CI. p. 378, 

Metals p. 428, Eat & 

Wear p. 559, Home Geo. 

pp. 566, 567, 571 
S. No. 40, 268, 269 
Lines, Structural, Arct. p. 401 
Lintel, Arct. p. 405 

S. No. 89, 91, 92, 351, 506, 

568 
Lisle, Roget de, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Literary Subjects and Settings, 

pp. 240 to 249 
Little Brown Bab)', Read. p. 533 
Little Dark Girl, Read. p. 534 
Little Drops of Water, Read. p. 

532 
Little Mountain Maiden, Read. p. 

534 
Little Papoose, Read. p. 532 

S. No. 158, 204 
Liverpool, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 35, 

Prod. Mfg. p. 72, Trans. 

p. 82, Pol. Geo. p. 128, 

Earth N. p. 145, Cities p. 

227 
S. No. 347 
Livestock. Prod. Mfg. p. 67, Dev. 

Na. p. 170, Farm C. p. 282, 

Farm M. p. 302 
S. No. 127, 172, 173, 183, 185, 

186, 188, 190 
Llama, Ueo. p. 1°, Trans, p. 77, 

An. p. 335, Tex. & CI. p. 

377, PL & An. p. 524 
S. No. 335 
Local Government, Pol. Geo. pp. 

123. 129, 130, 136, Govt. 

p. 189 



Local Industries, pp. 439 to 447 
Loch Katrine. Geo. p. 21, Ntl. F. 
p. 103 
S. No. 369 
Lock, Geo. pp. 11, 15, Dev. Na. p. 
172, Arct. p. 416 
S. No. 154, 253, 253 
1 ocomotives, Geo. p. 7, Trans, p. 
83, Com. Civ. ' p. 205, 
Metals p. 427, Hyg. p. 450, 
S. No. 43, 82, 101, 163, 330, 
575 
Lodge, Henry Cabot, Lit. Sub. p. 

246 
Loess Soil, Soil p. 272 
Logs, Geo. pp. 4, 11, 14, Gdn. 
Orch. & W. p. 289, Wood 
p. 422, Hyg. p. 452 
S. No. 1, 162, 215, 216, 509 
Log Cabin, Hyg. p. 452, House 
Dsn, p. 474 
S. No. 113, 409 
London, Geo. p. 20, Peo. p. 35, 
Mkts. p. 89, Pol. Geo. p 
128, Cities pp. 217, 219, 
221 
S. No. 348 to 352 
London Rank. Geo. p. 20, Com. 
Civ. p. 201, Cities, p. 231, 
Arct. p. 412 
S. No. 351 
London Bridge, Lit. Sub. p. 249, 
Arct. p. 415 
S. No. 348 
London, Jack, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Longfellow, Llenry Wadswoith, 
Geo. p. 5, Lit. Sub. p. 245, 
Read. p. 531 
S. No. 9 
Longitude and Time, Earth N. p. 
144 
S. No. 353 
Lool-ont Mt.. Geo. p. 9, Dev. Na. 
p. 168 
S. No. 11* 
' otefos. The, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 407 
r ouise. Read, p. 612 
Louisiana. Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 52, Cities p. 226 
S. No. 119, 120 
Lowell, Francis, Dev. Na. p. 165 
Lowell, Tames Russell, Lit. Sub. p. 
'245 



610 



INDEX 



Lucerne, Switzerland, Geo. p. 23 

S. No. 442 
Lumber, Geo. pp. 9, 14, Dev. 
Na. p. 169, Am. Today, 
p. 183, Eng. Comp. p. 253, 
Voc. Guid. p. 349, Wood 
p. 422, Loc. Ind. p. 447 
S. No. 107, 217, 523 
Lunar Illumination, Earth N. p. 
145 
S. No. 594, 595 
Luzon, P. I., Geo. p. 28 
S. No. 546 to 553 



M 



Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lit. 

Sub. p. 254 
Machinery, Prod. Mfg. p. 70, Dev. 
Na. p. 170, Gov. p. 196, 
Farm M. p. 308, Ind. Dsn. 
p. 394, Metals p. 427 
S. No. 53, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 
78. 128, 179, 541 
Farm, Farm M. p. 301, Metals 
p. 431 
S. No. 44, 136, 160, 161, 166, 
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 
218, 233, 357 ; 497 
Machinery, Farm — Farm Man- 
agement, pp. 297 to 310 
Madras, Geo. p. 26. Trans, p. 81. 
.-I ret. p. 400, House Dsn. 
p. 470 
S. No. 499 
Madrid, Geo. p. 23, Pol. Geo. p. 
132, Cities pp. 217, 231 
S. No. 435 
Maguey, Prod. Mfg. p. 53 

S. No. 285, 287 
Mahony, Francis Sylvester, Lit. 

Sub. p. 248 
Maine, Geo. p. 4 

S. No. 1, 2 
Maine, The, Dev. Na. p. 171 

S. No. 296 
Maize, See Corn 

Making Maple Sugar, Read. p. 532 
Making of an American, The, 
Com. Civ. p. 202, Lit. 
Sub. p. 249 
Manchuria. Geo. p. 27, Read. p. 
547 
S. No. 523 



Manila Hemp. Geo. p 28, Prod. 

Mfg. p. 53, Fann C. p. 

282, PL Asso. p. 325, Tex 

& CI. p. 376 
S. No. 552, 553 
Manila, P. I.. Mkts. p. 90. Zones 

p. 113, Dev. Na. p. 171. 

Cities p. 223, House Hsu. 

P. 470 
S. No. 546, 547 
Mantels, Arct. p. 418, House Dsn. 

PP. 475, 476 
S. No. 33, 92, 372 
Manufacturing. Prod. Mfg. p. 68, 

Dev. Xa. p. 169, Eng. 

Comp. p. 253, Farm C. p. 

278, Voc. Guid. p. 350, 

Tex. & CI. p. 377, Lid. 

Dsth. p. 397, Home Geo. 

p. 646 
Mam ire, Soils p. 274 
Maple Sugar, Prod. Mfg. p. 47, 

Gdn. Orch. & IF. p. 289, 

PI. Asso. p. 325, Wood 

p. 420, Loc. Ind. p. 445, 

Read. p. 536, Eat & Wear 

p. 555 
S. No. 130 
Marble, Geo. p. 5. Prod. Mfg. p. 

59, Aw. Today p. 183, 

Con. Stone B. & T. p. 

434, Loc. Ind. p. 441 
S. No. 4, 5, 36, 87 
Mariposa Grove, Geo. p. 14, PI. 

Asso. pp. 322, 324 
S. No. 22S 
Marl-en, Island of, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 401 
Markets, Geo. pp. 5, 21, 22, 23, 29, 

Mkts. p. 87, Com. Civ. p. 

200, Farm 31. p. 304, / 'oc. 

Guid. p. 353, Ind. Sup. 

Home p. 361, Children pp. 

514, 516, Home Geo. p. 

565 
S. No. 7, 109, 375, 387, 393, 

395, 423, 447, 466, 469, 

484, 485, 555, 572 
Market Centers, Mkts. p. 88 
Market Gardening, Voc. Guid. p. 

349 
Markets and Marketing, pp. 87 to 

96 
Mars, Geo. p. 30, Earth X. p. 146 



INDEX 



611 



S. No. 596 

Marseillaise, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Marseilles, France. Geo. p. 23, 
Mkts. p. 88, Cities p. 227 
S. No. 429 
Mary Nad a Little Lamb, Read. p. 

532 
Maryland, Geo. p. 8 

S. No. 86 
Massachusetts, Geo. p. 5, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 68, Tex. & CI. p. 
378 
S. No. 6 to 20 
Mason, Voc. Guid, p. 351 
Masonrv. (on. Stone B. & T. p. 
"435 
S. No. 27, 174, 331, 348, 366, 
379, 391, 392, 397, 450, 
470, 565, 569 
Matterhorn, The, Geo. p. 24, Ntl. 
/■'. p. 107 
S. No. 448 
Manlmain, Burma, Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 509 
Mayon, Mt. Geo. p. 28, Zones p. 
118 
S. No. 548 
McFarlane, Charles T., pp. xxix, 1 
McGuire, Lelia, pp. xxxix, 362 
McKinlev. William, Dev. Na. p 

170 
McMurry, Frank M., pp, xi, xxi 
Meat, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. p. 50 
Mkts. p. 91, Food & Ckry 
p. 364, Eat & Wear p 
556, Home Geo. pp. 565 
570. See Cattle, Hogs 
Sheep, etc. 
S. No. 127, 140, 141, 142, 143, 
144, 173, 183, 185 
Meat Industry, 

S. No. 140 to 144 
Mechanical Construction, hid. 

Dsn. p. 392 
Mechanical Power, Ind. Dsn. p. 

391 
Mediterranean Climate, Zones p. 

113 
Mediterranean World, For. Beg. 

p. 152 
Mees, C. E. K., pp. xliii, 543 
Melbourne. Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 
129, Cities p. 217, Read. 
p. 549 
S. No. 587 



Melville, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Memorials, Arct. p. 414 

S. No. 146, 356, 365, 368, 451, 
502, 561, 565, 568 
Mendoza River, Soils p. 271 

S. No. 321 
Mesa, Ntl. F. p. 108 

S. No. 475 
Mesahi Range, Prod. Mfg. pp. 57, 
64 
S. No. 163 
Mesquite, PL -lsso. p. 325 

S. No. 209 

Metal, Ind. Sup. Home p. 359, Ind. 

Dsn. pp. 389, 397, Arct. 

p. 418, Metals pp. 425, 426, 

427 

Metals — Sources and Uses, pp 

425 to 431 
Meteor, Geo. p. 30, Earth .V. p. 
147 
S. No. 599 
vlcthod of Using Stereographs & 

Slides, xv to xxix 
Methods. Modern Farming, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 46. Farm. C. p. 
277, Farm H. & F. L. p. 
314, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, 
Metals p. 431 
S. No 163. 166, 177, 178, 179, 
180, 181, 198, 199, 218, 
233, 357 
Primitive Farmini?. Prod Mfg. 
p. 46, Farm C. p. 277, Ind. 
Dsn, p. 395 
S. No. 341, 409, 479, 488. 497, 
498, 506, 522, 561, 562 
Meuse River, Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 397 
Mexican War, Dev. Na. p. 167, 

Am. Today p. 177 
Mexico. Geo. p. 17, Peo. p. 42 
Prod. Mfg. pp. 52. 58 
Trans, p. 81, Zones p. 112, 
Pol. Geo. p. 124, Dev. 
Na, p. 173, Tex. & CI. p. 
378, Arct. p. 409, Metals 
p. 425, Con. Stone B. & T. 
p. 434, House Dsn, p. 470, 
Cos. Dsn. pp. 478, 479, 
Photo, p. 498, Children p. 
507, Trav. & Lee. p. 577 
S. No. 280 to 290 



612 



INDEX 



Mexico City, Geo. p. 17, Pol. Geo. 
p. 124, Dev. Na. p. 173, 
Cities p. 217 
S. No. 282 

Michigan, Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. 
pp. 58, 64, Trans, pp. 79, 
81 
S. No. 149 to 158 

Middle Atlantic States, Geo. p. 5, 
Trav. & Lee. p. 654 
S. No. 25 to 84 

Milan — Cathedral. Geo. p. 24. 
Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 
217, .drcf. pp. 399, 404 
S. No. 458 

Military Uniforms, Cos. Dsn. p. 
480 
S. No. 146, 266, 366, 476, 585 

Milk. Geo. pp. 6, 7, 20, 22. 25, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Food & 
Ckry. p. 365, Children p. 
512, Eat & Wear p. 553, 
Home Geo. pp. 565, 570 
S. No. 46, 57, 339, 396, 403, 
411, 413, 487 

Miller. Emily Huntingdon, Lit. 
Sub. p. 249 

Mills, see Factories 

Minaret, Arct. p. 399 
S. No. 473, 493, 502 

Mines and Mining, Geo. pp. 7, 11 
12. 14, 15. Prod. Mfg. pp 
56, 59, 63, Dev. Na. p. 170 
Com. Civ. pp. 201, 204 
Eng. Comp. p. 254, Voc 
Guid. p. 349, hid. Sup 
Home p. 359, Wood p 
423, Metals p. 425, Home 
Geo. p. 568 
S. No. 69, 70, 74 to 79, 115, 
122, 155, 163, 176, 187, 
214, 225, 245, 287, 579, 
581 

Mining Camp, Geo. pp. 12. 14, 15, 
17, Com. Civ. p. 201, 
Metals p. 425, Read. p. 
539 
S. No. 187, 214, 246, 287 

Minneapolis. Geo. p. 11, Com. Civ. 
p. 201, Cities p. 221 
S. No. 167 

Minnesota. Geo. p. 11, Trans, pp. 
75, 81, Zones p. 116, Farm 
II. & F. L. p. 316, Wood 
p. 420 



S. No. 162 to 169 
Mint, Geo. p. 8, Prod. Mfg. p. 58, 
Govt. p. 194 
S. No. 84 
Minute Men, Geo. p. 5, F. Am. 
Na. p. 163 
S. No. 10 
Mirick, G. A., pp. xliii, 581 
Mississippi River, Geo. pp. 9. 11. 
12, Trans, p. 80, Ntl. F. 
pp. 102, 105, Am. Today 
p. 187, Read. p. 537 
S. No. 119, 148, 170, 174 
Mississippi (State), Geo. p. 9, 
Read. p. 537 
S. No. 117 
Missouri, Geo. p. 12 

S. No. 174 to 176 
Mlembo River, Geo. p. 29 

S. No. 577 
Modern Clothing, Tex. & CI. p. 

381 
Mohammedan Architecture, Arct. 
pp. 399, 404 
S. No. 466, 502, 558 
Mombasa. Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 110 

S. No. 573 
Monaco, Geo. p. 23, Zones p. 113 

S. No. 432 
Money, Prod. Mfg. p. 61, Dev. Na. 
p. 168, Metals p. 427 
S. No. 84, 94 
Mongolians, Peo. p. 40 

S. No. 343, 510, 519, 523, 530, 
532, 53S. 543 
Monongahela River, Geo, p. 7 

S. No. 61 
Monsoon Regions. Zones p. 113 
Montana. Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. p 
58 
S. No. 187 to 189 
Montevideo, Geo. p. 18, Photo, p 
496 
S. No. 312, 313 
Montreal, Geo. p. 16, Trans, pp. 
81, 82. 83, 84, F. Am. Na. 
p. 162, Com. Civ. p. 201, 
Cities p. 238 
S. No. 267 
Monuments, Cities p. 217. Arct. p. 
414, Con. Stone B. & T. 
P. 435 
S. No. 283, 368, 380, 385, 391, 
416, 433, 450, 460 
Moon, The. Geo. p. 30. Earth N. 
p. 145, Read. p. 532 



INDEX 



613 



S. No. 594, 595 

Moose, Geo. p. 4, An. p. 336, PI. 
& An. p. 524, Read. p. 
540 
S. No. 2 
Moraines. Lateral 
S. No. 428 
Terminal, 

S. No. 276, 427 
Material carried, 
S. No. 274, 428 
Mormons, Dev. Na. p. 167 
Morocco. Geo. p. 28, Mkts. p. 87, 
Pol. Geo. p. 132, Children 
p. 510 
S. No. 555 
Moscow, Geo. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 
138, Cities p. 236, Photo. 
p. 495 
S. No. 483 
Moslems. Geo. p. 26, Pol. Geo. p 
129 
S. No. 503 
Mosques. Cities p. 235. Arct. p. 
410 
S. No. 466, 473, 483, 493, 495, 
503, 558 
Moti Guv. Mutineer — -Kipling, 

Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Mount Hood, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. 
P. p. 107, Zones p 
119 
S. No. 221 
Mount Pilatus. Geo. p. 23. Ntl. F. 
p. 106 
S. No. 440, 441 
Mount Rainier, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. F. 
p. 108 
S. No. 219 
Mount Tacoma, See Mt. Rainier 
Mount Vernon, Geo. p. 8. Dev. Na. 
p. 164, Govt. p. 189, Farm 
H. & F. L. p. 311, Arct. 
p. 412, House Dsn. p. 476 
S. No. 96 
Mountain Climbing, Ens. Comp. 

P. 259 
Mountain Peaks, Ntl. F. p. 107 
S. No. 221, 276, 445, 447, 448, 
508 
Ranges. Ntl. F. p. 107 

S. No. 102, 213, 243, 276, 284 
Scenes, Trav. & Lee. p. 579, 



See Alpine Scenery 
S. No. 102, 219, 274, 275, 276, 
444, 446, 448, 449, 508 
System. Ntl. F. p. 107 
S. No. 508 
Mountains, Geo. pp. 8, 14. 16, 17, 
22, 23, Ntl. F. p. 106 
S. No. 102, 213, 219, 228, 230, 
274, 276, 409, 427, 428, 
440, 441, 444, 445, 447, 
448, 508, 522, 523 
Mountains, Effect on Human Af- 
fairs, Ntl. F. p. 108 
S. No. 187, 214, 243, 287, 408, 
413, 440, 441 
Mountains of World. Ntl. F. p. 108 
Old, Ntl. F. p. 107 

S. No. 38, 39, 102, 361 
Volcanic, Ntl. F. p. 107 

S. No. 221, 288, 291, 545, 453, 
525, 548 
Young-. Ntl. F. p. 106 

S No. 201, 213, 276, 322, 323, 
427, 440, 441, 445, 447, 
448, 508 
Muir, John, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
Mulberry. Geo. p. 27. Prod. Mfg. 
p. 54, Zones p. 116, PI. 
Asso. p. 325, An. p. 307, 
Tex. & CI. p. 376, Chil- 
dren p. 510, Eat & Wear 
p. 560, Home Geo. p. 566 
S. No. 537, 538 
Mules, Trans, p. 76, An. Hus. p. 
294, An. p. 332 
S. No. 124, 175, 249, 294, 311, 
438, 479 
Muskmelons. See Cantaloupes 
Mutton, Prod. Mfg. p. 51, Am. 
Today p. 179, An. Hus. 
p. 295, Eat & Wear p. 
556 
S. No. 145, 173, 190, 480, 589 
Mv Heart's in the Highlands — 
Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 243 



N 



Name of Old Glory. The, Lit. Sub. 

P. 249 
Namur. Geo. p. 22 

S. No. 397 
Nanking. Geo. p. 27. Trans, p. 7A. 

Cities p. 223 



614 



INDEX 



S. No. 516 
Naples, Geo. p. 24, Trans, p. 75, 
For. Beg. p. 153 
S. No. 454 
Narvaez, / ; . Am. Na. p. 162 
Nat! nal Parks, Geo. pp. 13, 14, 
Govt. p. 196 
S. No. 191 to 197, 201, 208, 
219, 222, 228, 229 
Nature, Draw. p. 460 
Nature Study, p. 318 
Natural Bridges, J ret. p. 415 

S. No. 200, 206 
Natural Features of earth surface, 
Ntl. F. p. 102, Home Geo. 
p. 651 
Natural Forms and Forces, pp. 

97 to 108 
Natural History, Photography, 
Photo, p. 498 
S. No. 2, 72, 189 
Nature's Wonders, Eng. Comp. 

p. 25;, 
Naval Stores. See Turpentine & 

Tar 
Navv, Am. Today, p. 178, Com. 
Civ. p. 204 
S. No. 100, 242, 254 
Navy Department, Govt. p. 195 
Nazareth, Geo. p. 26, For. Beg. p. 
152, Lit. Sub. p. 242 
S. No. 497 
Nebraska, Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 65, Zones p. 116 
S. No. 180 to 182 
Negroes, Geo. pp. 9, 29, Peo. p. 43, 
For. Beg. p. 157, F. Am. 
Na. p. 162, Dev. Na. pp. 
165, 167, 176, Cos. Dsn. p. 
484 
S. No. 105, 108, 115, 117 to 
119, 570, 572, 577, 578 
Netherlands, Holland. 
Nets, Fishing, Tex. & CI. p. 381 

S. No. 226, 245 
Nevada, Geo. p. 14 

S. No. 214 
Newburgh, N. Y., Geo. p. 6, F. 
Am. A' a. p. 164, Gdn. 
Or eh. & 11'. p. 285 
S. No. 37 
New England States, Geo. p. 4, F. 
Am. Na. p. 162, Trav. & 
Lee. p. 575 
S. No. 1 to 24 



Newfoundland, Geo. p. 16, Pol. 
Geo. p. 128 
S. No. 278, 279 
New Guinea, Geo. p. 30, Peo. p. 
112, Zones p. 43, House 
Dsn. p. 470, Cos. Dsn. p. 
485 
S. No. 592 
New Hampshire, Geo. p. 5, Loc. 
hid. p. 441 
S. No. 3 
New Jersey, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 51 to 60 
New Mexico, Geo. p. 13 

S. No. 211 
New Orleans, Geo. p. 9, Trans, p. 
79, Mkts. p. 93, Dev. Na. 
p. 168, Com. Civ. p. 201, 
Ciiies p. 226, Read. p. 537 
S. No. 119 
New South Wales, Geo. p. 30, Pol. 
Geo. p. 129 
S. No. 585 
New York City, Geo. pp. 5, 6, 
Trans, p. 81, Mkts. p. 89 
Ntl. F. p. 104, Dev. Na. p 
166, Govt. p. 192, Com 
Civ. pp 200, 205, 207, 209 
Cities pp. 217, 218, 220 
223, 225, Arct. p. 212 
Hyg. p. 451 
S. No. 25 to 35 
New York (State), Geo. pp. 5, 6, 
Zones, p. 116, F. Am. Na. 
p. 162, Govt. p. 190 
S. No. 25 to 50 
New Zealand, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. 
pp. 128, 130, House Dsn. 
p. 470, Read. p. 550 
S. No. 591 
Niagara Falls, Geo. p. 6. Ntl. F. p. 
100, F. Am, Na. p. 159, 
Govt. p. 193, Lit. Sub. p. 
244, Read. p. 538 
S. No. 49, 50 
Nicaragua, Geo. p. 17 

S. No. 293 
Nice, France, Geo. p. 23, Mkts. p. 
96, House Adm. p 384, 
Children p. 512 
S. No. 431 
Nightingale. Geo. p. 21, Lit. Sub. 
p. 249, An, p. 340 
S. No. 359 



INDEX 



615 



Nile River. The, Geo. p. 29, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 62, Pol. Geo. p. 
128. Read. p. 548 
S. No. 561, 564, 569 
Nitrate, Geo. p. 19, Prod. Mfg. p. 
64, Mkts. p. 94 
S. No. 325 
Nitro-Glvcerine. G<?o. p. 7 

S. No. 69, 70 
Nizhni Novgorod, Geo. p. 25, 
M£/j. p. 88 
S. No. 484 
Nolen, John, pp. xxxv, 219 
Norse Legends, Read. p. 532 
North America, Geo. p. 4, Read. p. 
535 
S. No. 1 to 303 
North Cape, Geo. p. 22, Ntl. F. p. 
103 
S. No. 414 
North Carolina, Geo. p. 8 

S. No. 102, 103 
North Central States, Geo. p. 10, 
Trav. & Lee. p. 576 
S. No. 128 to 186 
N. Dakota, Geo. p. 12, Zones p. 
117 
S. No. 177 
Northmen, For. Beg. p. 155 
Norton, Caroline, E. S., Lit. Sub. 

p. 248 
Norton, Mrs, Lit. Sub. p. 245 
Notre Dame, Geo. p. 23, Com. Civ. 
p. 201, Cities pp. 219, 231, 
Arct. pp. 399. 403. 412, 
Con. Stone B. & T. p. 
434 
S. No. 425 
Norway, Geo. p. 22, Peo. pp. 35, 
40, Pol. Geo. p. 134, For. 
Beg. p. 156, House Dsn. 
p. ^470, Children p. 508. 
Read. p. 544, Eat & Wear 
P 552 
S. No. 407 to 415 
Nova Scotia. Geo. p. 16, F. Am. 
Na. p. 162 
S. No. 262 
Nuremburg. Ger.. Geo. p. 22, Com. 
Civ. p. 200 
S. No. 387 
Nurembnrg — Longfellow, Geo. p. 
22, Read. p. 531 
S. No. 387 



Nuts, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, Food & 
Ckry. p. 368, Children pp. 
505. 512, Eat & Wear p. 
558 
S. No. 118, 234, 551 



( >ak, Wood p 421 
S. No. 146, 369 
Oasis. Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 114 

S. No. 567 
Oats, Geo. p. 11, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, 
Am. Today p. 179, Farm 
C p. 280, Food & Ckry. 
p. 367, Eat & IV car p. 
552 
S. No. 147, 408 
Oceans, Geo. p. 22 

S. No, 100, 414, 415, 511 

Ocean Transportation, Trans, p. 

81 

S. No. 52, 277, 280, 295, 314, 

326, 511, 556, 559 

Occupations, Home Geo. pp. 567, 

571. See Industries 
Ode to the Nightingale, Lit. Sub. 

p. 249 
Ogden, Geo. p. 13, Zones p. 117 
S. No. 213 
S. No. 128 to 135 
Ohio River, Gee. p. 7, Trans, pp. 
80, 85, Dev. Na. p. 166. 
Am. Today, p. 187, Com. 
Civ. P . 201, Cities p. 223 
S. No. 61 
Oil, Geo. pp. 7, 9, Dev. Na. p. 169, 
Food & Ckry. p. 363, 
Metals p. 430. Read. p. 
538. Home Geo. pp. 567, 
571 
S. No. 69, 70, 122, 123 
Oklahoma. Geo. p. 9, Dev. Na p 
169 
S. No. 121 
Old North Church, Geo. p. 5. F. 
Am. Na. p. 163, Arct. pp. 
411, 412 
S. No. 6 
Old State House (Mass.L Gen. p. 
5, F. Am. Na. p. 162, Arct 
pp. 400, 412 
S. No. 8 



616 



INDEX 



Olives, Prod. Mfg. p. 48, Zones 

l». 114, Gdn. Orch. & W. 

p. 288, PL Asso. p. 325 
Olympia, Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 

152 
S. No. 478 
One Little Bag of Rice — Thomas 

Smith, Read. p. 532 
Onions, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 

S. No. 469 
Oranges, Geo. p. 23, Prod. Mfg. p. 

48, Gdn. Orch. & II '. i>. 

288, Farm M. p. 303, PL 

. Isso. p. 325, Food & 

Ckry. p. 371, PL & An. 

p. 518, Eat & Wear p. 

552 
S. No. 237, 238, 437 
Orchards, Geo. pp. 6, 8, 12, 14, 15, 

23, Prod. Mfg. p. 66, Gdn. 

Orch. & IV. p. 287, Farm 

M. p. 299, Children p. 

512 
S. No. 44, 85, 175, 234, 237, 

437 
Ore, Prod Mfg. p. 57, Dcv. Na. 

p. 170, Com. Civ. p. 201. 

See Metals 
S. No. 128, 154, 155, 164, 176, 

579 
Oregon, Geo. p. 14, Zones p. 115, 

PI. Asso. p. 324 
S. No. 221 to 227 
Orient, For. Beg. p. 150 
Oriental Costumes, Tex. & CI. p. 

382, Cos. Dsn. p. 482 
S. No. 494, 500, 519,. 555, 562 
1 Irion, Geo, p. 30 

S. No. 599 
Ornament, Ind. Dsn. p. 397, Arct. 

p. 404 
O'Shea, Michael Vincent, pp. 

xlii, 501 
Ostriches. Geo. p. 15, An. p. 340, 

PL & An p. 524 
S. No. 239 
" O. the Pretty Flowers!" Read. 

p 532' 
Outdoor Life, pp. 340 to 346 
Out-of-doors Life. Hvg. p. 448 
n, Trans, p. 77. An. p. 334 
S. No. 298, 561, 580 
Ovsters, Geo. pp. 8, 9, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 52. Dev. Na. p. 169, An. 

p. 339, Food & Ckry. p. 

365, PI & An. p. 524, Eat 



& Wear p. 557, Home 
Ceo. p. 566 
S. No. 86, 97 



Pacific States, Geo. p. 14, Trav. & 

Lee. p. 576 
S. No. 215 to 242 
Packing Houses, Geo. p. 10, Mkts. 

p. 91, Govt p. 190, Cities 

p. 236, Home Geo. p. 568. 

See Meat 
Pageant, Zing. Comp. p. 259 
Palaces, GYo. p. 21, ./re/, p. 412 

House Dsn. p. 463 
S. No. 384, 417, 436, 483 
Palermo, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 37, 

Fur. Beg. p. 153, Cities p. 

222 
S. No. 455 
Palestine, Geo. p. 26, P<?fl. p. 38, 

Pol. Geo. p. 137, Con. 

Stone B. & T. p. 433, 

Children p. 510, Trav. & 

Fee. p. 578 
S. No. 495 to 498 
Palisades, Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 51 
Palm, Geo. p. 15, PL Asso. pp. 

324, 325, TY.r. # C/. p. 

376. Wood p. 421 
S. No. 247, 249, 259, 301, 551, 

556, 566, 567, 574 
Panama, Geo. p. 15, Pol. Geo. p. 

124, Dev. Xa. p. 172, Gor/f. 

P. 192, House Dsn. p. 470, 

Children p. 507, food, p. 

541 
S. No. 247 to 256 
Panama Canal, Geo. p. 15, Prod. 

M/flF. p. 71, 7Yrt;/.r. p. 79. 

Dev. Na. pp. 172, 173, .-/;/;. 

Today p. 187, (7<>:7. p. 

194 
S. No. 248 to 256 
Pan American Union, Dev. Na. p. 

172, Govt. p. 197 
Papaw. See Papava 

S. No. 259 
Papaya. Prod. Mfz. p. 48, PL 

Asso. p. 325, Tex. & CI. 

p. 376 
S. No. 259 
Paper, Geo. pp. 5, 22, Prod. .1//".? 

pp. 61, 70, Am. Today 



INDEX 



617 



p. 185, Ind. Sup. Home 
p. 361, Tex. & CI. p. 380, 
Wood p. 423, Metals p. 
427 
S. No. 19, 20, 94, 412 
Papoose, Cos. Dsn. p. 486, Chil- 
dren p. 506 
S. No. 158, 204, 328 
Papuans. See New Guinea 
Parades, Eng. Comp. p. 259 
Paris, Geo. p. 23, Mkts. p. 90, Pol. 
Geo. p. 132, Com. Civ. p. 
201, CihM P- 218 
S. No. 421 to 425 
Parkman, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Parks, Cities p. 228, PI. Asso. p. 
323, Arct. p. 417 
S. No. 10, 28, 126 
Parks, National, Govt. p. 196 

S No. 93, 191 to 197, 201, 
207, 208, 219, 228, 229 
Parthenon, Arct. p. 399 

S. No. 475 
Passes and Divides, Ntl. F. p. 10b 
S. No. 195, 243, 251, 322, 323 
Pastures, PI. Asso. p. 323 

S. No. 127, 173, 183, 190, 301, 
480, 589 
Patent, Govt. p. 199 
Paterson, N. J., Geo. p. 6, Prod 
M/?. p. 55, Cities p. 220 
S. No. 5Z, 54, 55 
D aul Revero's Ride — Longfellow, 

Lit. Sub. p. 245 
Payne, J. Howard, Lit. Sub. p. 249, 

Read. p. 531 
Peach, Prod. Mfg. pp. 48, 66^ PI. 
Asso. p. 325. Gdn. Orch. 
& IV. p. 288, Food & 
Ckry. p. 370, PI. & An. 
p 519, Eat & Wear p. 
552 
S. No. 85 
D eaks, Mountain. ATff. F. P- 107 
S. No. 221, 276, 445, 447, 448, 
508 
Peanuts, Geo. p. 9, Prod Mfg.VV- 
49 65, Dev. Na. p. 169, 
PI Asso. p. 330, Food & 
Ckry. p. 368, PI. & An. 
p. 519 
S. No. 118 
°eary, Robert Edwin, Geo. p. ^0, 
Trans, p. 82, Zoji^j p. 117, 
Cow, Cw\ p. 201 



S. No. 342 

Peasant Costume, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 
S. No. 373, 388, 390, 393, 396 
Peat, Prod. Mfg. p. 56, Food & 
Ckry. p. 363 
S. No. 378 
Peking, Geo. p. 27, Pco. p. 40, Dev. 
Na. p. 173 
S. No. 520 
Penguins, Geo. p. 29, An. p. 339, 
PL & An. p. 524 
S. No. 584 
Peninsulas, Ntl. F. p. 104 
S. No. 248, 256, 432 
Pennsylvania, Geo. p. 7. Mkts. p 
95, Dev. Na. p. 174, Farm 
H. & F. L. p. 317, Loc. 
Ind. p. 441 
S. No. 61 to 84 
Pense, Read. p. 534 
Peon. Geo. p. 17 

S. No. 281 
People of All Lands, pp. 31 to 44 
People — Primitive, Children p, 

515 
Percheron Horses, Geo. p. 10, An. 

Hits. p. 293 
Perry Commodore, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Pershing, John J., Dev. Na. p. 

174 
Perspective, Photo, p. 492 
Perspective, Angular, Draw, p 

457 
Perspective, Circles, Draw. p. 455 
Perspective, Parallel, Drazv. p. 456 
Peru, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 43, Zones 
p. 112, Pol. Geo. p. 125 
Read. p. 541 
S. No. 329 to 334 
Petrified Forest, Geo. p. 13 

S. No. 206 
Petrograd, Geo. p. 25, Pol. Geo. 
p. 138, Cities p. 231 
S. No. 482 
Petroleum, Prod. Mfg. pp. 56. 64 
Am. Today p. 182, Loc. 
Ind. p. 441. See Oil 
S. No. 69, 70, 122, 123, 256 
Phases of the Moon, Earth N. p. 
145 
S. No. 594, 595 
Philadelphia, Geo. p. 7, Prod. Mfg 



r>i8 



INDEX 



p. 70, Govt. p. I'M, Com. 
Civ. p. 209, Cities p. -'-'1 
S. No. 80 to 84 
Philippines, Geo. p. 28, /Y<>. p. 41, 
Zones p. 113, /'"/. (/('ii. p. 
123, /Vr. A,/, p. 171, Govt. 
p. 198, House Dsn. p. 470, 
t'n.v. Dsn. p. 485, Children 
p. 507, Read. p. 540 
S. No. 546 to 553 
Phoebe's Arch, Geo. p. 13 

S. No. 200 
Phosphate, Geo. p. 9, Prod. ftlfa. 
p. 57, Soils p. 275 
S. No. 115 
Photography, pp. 487 to 501) 
Photography, Alpine SoeneiT, 
Photo, p. 496 
Applied to Engineering, Photo. 

p. 495 
Applied to Factory, Photo, p. 

495 
Applied to Surveying and Map 

Drawing, Photo, p. 496 
Astronomical, Photo, p. 500 
Natural History, Photo, p. 498 
Tropical Scenes, Photo, p. 498 
Physical Geography, pp. 97 to 108 
Piazza, House Dsn. pp. 462, 470 
Picture Plane, Draw, pp. 455, 457 
Pi« rs, Arct. p 407, Con. Stone II 
& T. p. 436 
S. No. 94, 152, 174, 379, 392, 
568 
Pike's Peak, Geo. p. 13 

S. No. 201 
Pilasters, .tret. p. 407 
Pilatus, Mt., Geo. p. 23, Soils p. 
270 
S. No. 440, 441 
Pina. Prod. Mfq. p. 53, Tex. & 

CI. p. 376 
Pine, Dev. No. p. 168, PI. Asso. 
pp. 321, 322, 324, Wood 
p. 421 
S. No. 98. 107, 162, 191, 224. 
228, 265, 388, 407, 418 
449. 527 
Georgia, PI. Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 107 
Mountain, /'/. Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 427. 428. 449 
Nut, PI. Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 201, 211 
Scotch, PI. Asso. p. 324 
S. No. 388, 407, 418 



White, PI. Asso. p. 324 

S. No. 162, 265 
Yellow, PI. Asso. p. 324 
S. No. 191, 200, 228 
Pineapples, Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 48, Pood & Ckry. p. 
370, PI. & An. p. 519, 
Read. p. 537, Eat & Wear 
P. 552 
S. No, 108 
Pine Nuts, Prod. Mfg. p. 49 
Pittsburgh, Geo. p. 7, P. Am. Na. 
p. 162, Am, Today p. 182, 
Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities 
PP. 223, 226, 237, Read. p. 
538 
v No. 61 to 67 
Plains, Coastal, Ntl. P. p. 105 
a. No. 104, 105, 108, 122, 28t> 
compound Alluvial, Ntl. P. p. 
ivo 
S. No. 237, 46/ 
Delta, Ntl. P. p. 10h 

S. No. 120, 500, 558 
Effects on Human Affairs, Ntl. 

P. p. 106 
Flood, Ntl. P. p. 105 

S. No. 321, 408, 467, 509, 515, 
561, 564, 580 
Glacial, Ntl. P. p. 106 

S. No. 136, 137, 147, 161, 488 
Great Western of U. S., Ntl. P. 
p. 106 
S. No. 181, 183, 186, 198, 199 
Lake, Ntl. P. p. 105 
S. No, 47, 149, 166 
Planets, Earth N. p. 146 
S. No. 596, 597, 598 
Planting, Farm C. p. 277 
Planting of the Anple Tree — 
Bryant, Lit. Sub. p. 242 
Plants and Animals, pp. 517 to 

526 
Plants — For" 1 Storage, PI. Asso. 

P. 328 
Plants and Plant Associations, 

pp. 320 to 330 
Plaster Walls, House Dsn p. 467 

S. No. 354 
Plateaus, Ntl. P. p. 106 
Plateau States, Geo. p. 12, Trav. 
&• Lee. p. 576 
S. No. 187 to 214 
Playgrounds, Cities p. 228 
Plowing. Geo. pp. 12, 25, 27, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 65, Soils p. 273, 



INDEX 



619 



Farm C. p. 277, Farm M. 
p. 309, Farm H. & F. L. 
p. 315, Children p. 511, 
Home Geo. p. 571 
S. No. 178, 180, 298, 488, 522, 
J61 
Plucking, Prod. Mfg. u. 62 

S. No, 175, 294, 302 
Pocahontas, Lit. Sub. p. 249, Read. 
p. 532 
S. No. 98 
Poc, Edgar Allan, Lit. Sub. p. 248, 
Poland. CZf.n. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 
139, House Dsn. p. 471, 
Children p. 509 
S. No. 465. 485 
Polar Regions. Geo. p. 20, Zones 
p. H 7 
S. No. 246. 242 to 346, 413 to 
415 
Political Geography, pp. 121 to 

13° 
Pompeii, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 453 
Ponce de Leon, Juan. F Am. Na. 

p. 162 
Ponies, An. Hits. p. 294 
S. No- 182. 188, 20* 
Poplar, Lombardv, PL Asso. p. 
325 
S. No. 466. 489 
Popocatapetl, Geo. p. 17. NtL & 
p. 107 
S. No. 288 
Pork, Prod. Mfg. p. 50, Children 
p. 513. Eat & IVear p. 
555. See Meat. 
S. No. 122, 142, 143, 144, 172, 
183 
Portable Houses, House Dsn. p. 
464 
S. No. 575 
P<->rto Rico. Geo. p. 15. Fr 1 G*n, 
p. 123, Dev. Na. p. 171, 
Govt. p. 198, House Dsn. 
p. 471, Read. p. 550 
S. No. 257, 258 
Ports, Trans, p. 81, Cities p. 237 

See Harbors 
Possessions of U. S., Geo. pp. IS, 
28 
S. No. 243 to 261, 546 to 
554 



Posters, Draw. p. 458 

Post-Office Dept., Govt. p. 195 

Posts, Arct. p. 407 

S. No. 96, 109, 27? 

Potatoes, Geo. p. 11, Prod Mfg. 
pp. 47, 65, Dev. Na. p. 174, 
Farm C. p. 282, Gdn. 
Orch. &■ W. p. 285, Farm 
M. p. 307, Food & Ckrv. 
p. 369, Eat & Wear p. 557, 
Home Geo. pp. 566, 570 
S. No. iec 

Potterv C* n n . 7. P.-od. Mfg. p 
59, Dev. Na. p. 169, Ind. 
Dsn. pp. 389, 396, 397, 
. Iret. p. 419, Con. Stone 

B. & T. p. 437 

S. No. 58. 59. 292. 372, 487, 
519- 542. 564. 5^2, 385 
Poultry, Am. Toda\i p. 180, 
Farm M. p. 303, Voc. 
Guid. p. 349. Children p. 
512. See Chickens, Ducks, 
Geese 
S. No. 56, 216, 240. 401 
Pouring, Ind. Dsn. p. 396 

S. No. 65, 156, 334 
Prague. See Bohcnii? 
Prairies, Com. Civ. p. 203. Farm 

C. p. 278, Farm M. p. 300, 
PI. Asso. p. 323 

S. No. 178, 179, 180, 181 
Precious Stones, Geo. p. 26, Prod 
Mfr. p. 59. Con. Stone 5, 
& T. p. 438 
S. No. 512, 581 
Preparation of Soil, Soils p. 273, 
Farm C. p. 277, Farm M. 
pp 300, 309, Ind. Dsn. p. 
395, Home Geo. p. 571 
S. No. 179, 180. 448, 549. 561 
Preparedness, pp. 177 to 189 
Preparing and Serving Food, 

Food & Ckrv. p. 472 
Prescott, William, Lit. Sub. p. 246 
President, Pol. Geo. p. 123, C<rvf. 

p. 192 
Pressure. Effect of. NtL F. p. 101 
Primitive 
Bridges, Arct. p. 415 

S. No. 408 
Costumes, Cos. Dsn. p. 495 



620 



INDEX 



S. No. 182, 328, 570, 572, 578, 
592 

Design, Ind. Dsn. p. 395 
Farm Work, Ind. Dsn. p. 395 
S. No. 479, 488, 522, 549, 561, 
562 
Homes, Children p. 514 

S. No. 205, 263, 281, 298, 546, 
549 
House Construction, House Dsn. 
p. 471 
S. No. 113, 409, 550 
Housekeeping, Children p. 515 
S. No. 292, 409, 410, 498, 506, 
550 
Industries, Prod. Mfg. p. 62 
Life, Children p. 514 

S. No. 98, 158, 204, 263, 328 
Manufacturing, Wood p. 422 
Markets, Mkts. p. 87 

S. No. 555, 572 
Methods 

Farming, Farm C. p. 277, Farm 
H. & F. L. p. 314. See 
Primitive Farm Work 
Transportation, Farm M. p. 
309 
People, Children, p, 515 
S. No. 328, 343 
Pottery. Con. Stone B. & T. p. 
437 
S. No. 292, 487, 542, 564, 572 
Stove, Con. Stone B. & T. p. 
433 
S. No. 410 
Prince Edward Island, Geo. p. 16 

S. No. 263 

Printing, Voc. Guid. p. 353, Tex. 

& CI. p. 378, Arct. p. 398 

S. No. 15, 16, 94 

Privet, European, PI. Asso. p. 326 

Production and Manufacturing, 

pp. 45 to 72 
Production Centers, Mkts. p. 90 
Products, Prod. Mfg. pp. 46 to 72, 
Am. Todav p. 178, Farm 
C. pp. 278, 279, Voc. 
Guid. p. 348, Tex. & CI. 
p. 375, Ind. Dsn. p. 396, 
Con. Stone B. & T. p. 

437 
Proctor, B. W., Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Proctor, Vt.. Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 59, Con. Stone B. & T. 

p. 434, Read, p, 536 
S. No. 4, 5 



Proportion, Arct. p. 401 
Prosser, Charles A., pp. xl, 386 
Protection, Com. Civ. p. 204 
Protectorate, Pol, Geo. pp. 123, 

130 
Protein, PI. Asso. p. 375, Food & 

Ckry. pp. 364, 365 
Pueblo, G. p. 13, Peo. p. 42, House 
Dsn. p. 474, Food & Ckry. 
p. 373, Children p. 515 
S. No. 211 
Puget Sound, Geo. p. 14, Am. 
Todav p. 183, Wood p. 
422 
S. No. 216, 217 
Pulleys, Ind. Dsn. p. 392 

S. No. 23, 54, 69, 135, 150, 
161, 295 
Pumpkins, Prod. Mfg. p. 47 

S. No. 137 
Puniab, The, Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 507 
Pulque, Geo. p. 17, Prod. Mfg. p. 
49, Zones p. 112, Farm C. 
p. 283, Hyg. p. 450 
S. No. 285, 287 
Pumpkins, Prod. Mfg. p. 47, Farm 
C. p. 283, Gdn. Orch. & 
W. p. 284, PI, Asso. p. 
326, Food & Ckry. p. 371, 
PI. & An. p. 519 
S. No. 137 
Pumpkin. The — Whittier, Lit. 

Sub. p. 248 
Putting the Reader There, Eng. 

Comp. p. 262 
Pyramid, Geo. pp. 17, 29, For. Beg. 
p. 151. Arct. p. 399 
S. No. 284, 564, 565, 566 



Quarry, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 
59, Voc. Guid. p. 350, Con. 
Stone B. &■ T. p. 434 
See Marble and Granite 
S. No. 3, 4 

Quebec, Canada, Geo. p. 16, Trans. 
p. 80, F. Am. Na. p. 162 
Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities 
pp. 217, 219, 235, 237 
S. No. 264, 266 

Qneepsferry, Scotland, Geo. p. 21, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Trans. 
p. 84 



INDEX 



621 



S. No, 366 

Queensland, Australia, Geo. p. 30, 
Pol. Geo. p. 129 
S. No. 589 
Queenstown, Ireland, Geo. p. 21, 
Trans, p. 81, Cities p. 227 
S. No. 374 
Queue, Children p. 510 

S. No. 520, 521 
Quincy Market. Geo. p. 5, Trans. 
p. 75, Mkts. p. 88, Com. 
Civ. p. 200, Ind. Sup. 
Home p. 361, House 
A dm. p. 384 
S. No. 7 
Quinn, Mary J., pp. xlii, 462 

R 

r <ace. Black, Pco. p. 43 

S. No. 105, 117, 118, 572, 577, 
578, 581, 592 
Race, Red, Peo. p. 41 

S. No. 182, 204, 244, 263, 292, 
328 
Race, White, Peo. p. 32 
Race. Yellow, Peo. p. 40 

S. No. 227, 343, 510, 516, 519, 
520, 521, 530, 543 
Racial Geography, pp. 31 to 44 
Rafts, Trans, p. 78 
S. No, 215, 507 
Railings, Arct. p. 418 

S. No. 9, 283, 336, 534 
Railroads. Geo. p. 16, Trans, p. 
82, 83. Dcv. Na. p. 166, 
Am. Toddy p. 186, Voc. 
Gnid. p. 353, Metals p. 
429 
S. No. 43, 79, 101, 116, 128, 
129, 163, 251, 267, 323, 
330, 420, 440, 544, 556 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, For. Beg. p. 

154 
Ramona, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Rands, W. B., Read. p. 529 
Range Cattle, Geo. pp. 12, 18, 
Prod. Mfa. p. 50, Mkts. P. 
01, An. Hus. pp. 292, 293. 
See Cattle 
Ranges. Mountain. Ntl. F. p. 107 

S. No. 102, 213. 243 
Rape, Farm C. p. 282, An. Hus. p. 
295, PL Asso. p. 326, An. 
p. 337 
S. No. 172 



Ranch, Geo. p. 12. Prod. Mfg. pp. 
50, 66, Farm M. p.' 302, 
Farm H. & F. L. p. 317 
Loc. Ind. p. 446. See Cat- 
tle & Horses. 
S. No. 180. 186, 190. 301 
Reading, pp. 527 to 550 
Reading, " Supplementary," pp 

532 to 550 
Reapers, Dev. Na. p. 166, Ind. 
Dsn. p. 399, Loc. Ind. p. 
444. See Farm Machin- 
ery. 
S. No. 136, 160, 218, 233, 357, 
529 
Recreations, Eng. Camp. p. 258 
Redway, Jacques W., pp. xxxiv, 

179 
Redwood, U'ood p. 421 

S. No. 229 
Regions with large demand, p. 95 
Reichstags — Gebaude, Pol. Geo 
p. 136 
S. No. 383 
Reindeer, Geo. p. 22. Prod. Mfo 
PP. 50, 67, Trans, p. 77, 
An. p. 336, Cos. Dsn. p. 
479, Children pp. 508, 513, 
PI, & An. p. 525, Eat & 
Wear p. 552 
S. No. 413 
Religion, Com. Civ. p. 210, Cities 

p. 236 
Renaissance, Arct. pp. 400, 404, 
House Dsn. p 471 
S. No. 7. 8, 28, 90, 91 95 
96. 329, 351, 383 '384' 
424 
Renublic. 

Central America, Pol. Geo n 
124 ' H ' 

France, Pol Geo. p. 131 
Mexico, Pol, Geo. p. 124 
Russia. Geo. p. 25. Pol. Geo. p 

137 
South America. Pol. Geo. p. 124 
Switzerland. Pol. Geo. p. 133 
United States. Pol. Geo. p. 122 
Residual Soil, Soils p. 271 
Resort Cities, Cities p. 236 

S. No. 60. 354, 427, 430, 457 
459 

Resources, Am, Today, p. 178 
Revere, Paul, Lit. Sub. p. 245 



622 



[NDEX 



Review, p, xxiii 

Revolution, American, Dev. Na. p. 

164, Am. Today p. 177 
Rhine, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 80, 
Ntl. F. p. 102, Cities, p. 
227 
S. No. 391, 392 
Rhode Island, Geo. p. 5. 

S. No. 21 
Rhodesia, Geo. p. 29, Pol. Geo. pp. 
128, 131, Read. p. 549 
S. No. 575 to 578 
Rice, Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. p. 47, 
Dev. Na. p. 169, Am. To- 
day p. 179, Farm C. p. 
279, Food & Ckry. p. 368, 
Ea£ & Wear p. 558, Home 
Geo. pp. 566, 570 
S. No. 104, 105, 527, 528, 529, 
549, 550 
Ridgley, Douglass C, pp. xxix, 3 
Riis, Jacob, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Riley, lames Whitcomb, Lit. Sub. 

p. 249 
Rio de Janeiro, Geo. p. 18, Mkts. 
p. 89, Zones p. Ill, Pol. 
Geo. p. 124, Cities pp. 221, 
235, Children p. 511 
S. No. 305, 3C6, 307 
Rivers, Traits, p. 79 

S. No. 51, 61, 120, 170, 264, 
391, 392, 397, 467, 471, 
489, 501, 507, 517, 564 
Rivers. Drowned. Ntl. F. n. 102 

S. No. 39, 51, 100, 264 
Rivers, Mature, Ntl. F. p. 102 

S. No 101, 170, 391, 392, 580 
Rivers. Old, Ntl. F. p. 102 

S. No. 106, 467, 470, 509, 517 
Rivers. Yonne, Ntl. F. r>. 102 

S. No. 49. 195. 228. 363. 407 
Roads. Prod. Mfg. p. 71, Cities p 
221, Home Gen. p. 570 
S. No. 31, 43, 71, 195, 209, 
221, 330 
Rock. See Stone 
Rock-a-byc Baby, Read. p. 532 
Rocky Mountain, Geo. pp. 12. 13. 
16, Zones p. 119, Dev. Na. 
p. 170 
S. No. 187 to 205, 274 to 
276 



Roman Architecture, A ret. p. 399 

S. No. 451, 452 
Romanesque Architecture, Arct. 
p. 399 
S. No. 349, 391, 406, 429 
Rome. Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 135, 
For. Beg. p. 154, Com. 
Civ. p. 201. Cities pp. 217, 
218, 219, 236 
S. No 450 to 452 
Roofs, Arct. p. 408, House Dsn. 
pp. 463 to 476 
S. No. 37, 355, 384, 442, 461, 
492, 499, 517, 558 
Roosevelt, Theodore, Lit. Sub. p. 
246 
S. No. 87, 90, 91 
Ropes. Prod. Mfg. p. 69. Tex. & 
CI. pp. 378, 380 
S. No. 99, 188, 559 
Ropewalk. The — Longfellow, Lit. 

Sub. p. 245 
Roselti, Christina, Read. p. 532 
Rotterdam, Holland, Geo. p. 22, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 72. Mkts. p. 
90, Cities p. 227 
S. No. 400 
Roumania, Geo. p. 24, Pen. p. 37, 
Pol. Geo. p. 137, Children 
p. 509, Read. p. 545 
S. No. 470, 471 
Rubber, Geo. pp. 10, 15, Prod. Mfg. 
pp. 53, 62, Dcr. Na. pp. 
170, 175, PI. Asso. p. 320, 
lud. Dsn. p. 390, Eat & 
Wear p. 561, Heme Geo. 
P. 568 
S. No. 131, 132, 133, 247 
Rubber Roots. Prod. Mfg. p. 53. 
Eat & Wear p. 561 
S. No. 133 
Rudeslieim, Geo. p. 22, Pco. p. 35. 
Prod. Mfg. p. 48 
S. No. 390 
Rugs, House Dsn. p. 475 

S. No. 33, 92 
Running Water, Ntl. F. p. 99, 

Soils p. 270 
Russia. Geo. p. 25, Peo. p. 38, Pol. 
Geo. p. 137, Children p. 
509, Read. p. 545, Eat & 
Wear p. 553 



INDEX 



623 



S. No. 481 to 488 
Rustchuk, Bulgaria, Geo. p. 24 
S. No. 469 



Sacks, Tex. & CI. p. 380 

S. No. 35, 148, 166, 295. 325 

Sage Brush, PL Asso. p. 326 

S. No. 188, 190 
Sail Boat, Trans, p. 79 

S. No. 27, 525 
Sailing Vessels, Trans, p. 82 

S. No. Ill, 217, 257, 295, 342, 
344, 473, 525 
Sails, Tex. & CI. p. 380 

S. No. 514, 525 
Sakkara or Step Pyramid, Geo. p. 
29, Arct. p. 399 
S. No. 566 
Salmon. Ceo. p. 14, Prod. Mfg. pp. 
51, 63, Govt. p. 197, An. p. 
339, Food and Ckry. p. 
366, PL & An. p. 525, 
Read. p. 640, Eat & Wear 
p. 557 
S. No. 226, 227, 244 
Salt, Geo. pp. 6. 11. Prod. Mfg. 
pp. 52, 69. Food & Ckry 
p. 371, Eat & Wear p. 
557 
S. No. 42, 153 
Salt Lake City, Geo. p. 13. Zones 
p. 117, Cities pp. 217, 236, 
Read. p. 539 
S. No. 212 
Salvador. Geo. p. 17. Peo. p. 42, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 68 
S. No. 292 
San Antonio, Geo. p. 10, Gdn. 
Or eh. & W. p. 287 
S. No. 126 
Sandals, Cos. Dsn. p. 484 

S. No. 532 
Sand Dunes. Geo. p. 14, Nil. F. p. 
99, PL Asso. p. 328 
S. No. 223 
San Dieeo Bav, Geo. p. 15, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 71, Read. p. 535 
S. No. 242 
San Francisco. Geo. p. 14, Trans. 
p. 85, Com. Civ. pp. 201, 
212, Cities p. 234, Read, p 
539 



S. No. 230 

San Gabriel Mission, Geo. p.. 15, 
Cities p. 219, Gdn. Orch. 
& IV. p. 286, Arct. pp. 
400, 411, Metals p. 430 
S. No. 241 
San Juan, Porto Rico, Geo. p. 15, 
Trans, p. 81. Zones p. Ill, 
Cities p. 227 
S. No. 257 
Santiago de Cuba. Geo. p. 18, 
Trans, p. 81, Cities p. 227 
S. No. 299 
Santiago de Chile, Geo. p. 19, Peo. 
p. 42, Pol. Geo. p. 125, 
Cities pp. 217, 231 
S. No. 324 
Sao Paulo. Geo. p. 18, Zones p. 
112, Cities pp. 221, 231, 
Con. Stone B. & T. p. 
434 
S. No. 308 to 311 
Sardines. Geo. p. 27, Prod. Mfg. p. 
52, An. p. 339, Eat & 
Wear p. 557 
S. No. 531 
Saturn, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. p. 
146 
S. No. 597 
Sault Ste. Marie, The " Soo," Geo. 
p. 11, Prod. Mfg. p. 71, 
Trans, p. 79, Am. Today, 
p. 187, Com. Civ. p. 201, 
Read. p. 538 
S. No. 154 
Savannah, Ga., Geo. p. 9, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 60, Trans, p. 81, 
Dev. Na. pp. 168, 174, 
Cities, p. 226 
S. No. 106 
Saving, Com. Civ. p. 208 
Saw Mill. Geo. p. 14. Prod. Mfg. 
p. 60, Am. Today p. 183, 
Wood p. 422, hoc. Ind. p. 
447, Home Geo. p. 565 
S. No. 216 
Scale of Gradation, Photo, p. 490 
Scandinavians, Peo. pp. 34, 35 

S. No. 407 to 420 
Schermerhorn, Grace, p. xl, House 

A dm. p. 431 
School Gardens, Gdn. Orch. & 
W. p. 284, Hyg. p. 501, 
Children p. 505, PL & 
An. p. 519 



624 



INDEX 



S. No. 83 

Schools, Geo. pp. 16, 18, 27, Com. 
Civ. p. 208, Cities p. 231, 
Voc. Guid. p. 354 
S. No. 260, 306, 520 
Schneckenburger, Max, Lit. Sub. 

p. 249 
Scotch, Pol. Geo. p. 128, For. Beg. 
p. 155, House Dsn. p. 379 
S. No. 365, 366, 368, 373 
Scotch Pine, PI. Asso. p. 324 
Scotland, Geo. p. 21, Peo. p. 36, 
Pol. Geo. p. 128, Read. p. 
543 
S. No. 365 to 373 
Scott, Sir Walter, Lit. Sub. p. 246 
" Scot's wha hae wi' Wallace 
bled." Burns, Lit. Sub. p. 
243 
Screw, Ind. Dsn. p. 392 

S. No. 130, 153 
Sea. See Ocean 
Sea Cliffs, Ntl. F. p. 103 

S. No. 432, 439 
Sea Dirge — Shakespeare, Lit. 

Sub. p. 247 
Sea Foods, Prod. Mfg. p. 51 

S. No. 13, 86, 226, 227, 244, 
345, 415, 481, 531 
Seal, Geo. p. 20. Prod. Mfg. p. 52. 
An. p. 339, PI. & An. p. 
525 
S. No. 345 
Seasons. Earth S. r> 14? 
Seaside Resorts, Eng. Comp. p. 

259 
Seattle. Gen. p. 14, Com. Civ. p. 
201, Cities p. 237 
S. No. 220 
Selective Draft, Govt. p. 197 
Selling, Children p. 514. See Mar- 
kets 
Semitic People. Peo. p. 38 

S. No. 485, 491, 494, 498, 566 
Seoul. Chosen, Geo. p. 28 

S. No. 542 
Sequoia, Geo. p. 14, PL Asso, pp. 
321, 322, 324, Wood p. 421 
S. No. 229 
Serajevo. Geo. p. 24, Mkts. p. 88. 
Com. Civ. p. 201, Cities p. 
218 
S. No. 466 
Serbia, Geo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. p. 
137, Dev. A r a. p. 173, Read. 



p. 545 
S. No. 467 
Serving Food, Foods & Ckry. p. 

372 
Seton, Ernest Thompson, pp. 

xxxiii, 363, 377 
Seven Little Sisters, Jane An- 
drews, Read. p. 533 
Shadow, Read. p. 529 
Sewell, Anna A, Read. p. 531 
Shakespeare, Geo. p. 20, For. Beg. 
p. 155, Lit. Sub. p. 247, 
Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 286 
S. No. 354, 355, 356 
Shawl Weaving, Geo. p. 26, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 54, Tex. & CI. p. 
379 
S. No. 506 
Sheep, Geo. pp. 10, 12, 13, 25, 30, 
Prod. Mfg. pp. 54, 66, 67, 
An. Hits. p. 295, An. p. 
334, PI. &■ An. p. 525, 
Read. p. 539, Eat & Wear 
p 560 
S. No. 145, 173, 190, 480, 589 
Shellev, Percy Rysshe, Lit. Sub. p. 

248 
Shelter, Wood p. 423 

S. No. 9, 10, 113, 409, 445 
Shepherd, The, Read. p. 532 

S. No. 480 
Sherman. Frank Dempster, Read. 

p. 532 
Sherman, General William Te- 

cumseh, Dev. Na. p. 168 
Shipbuilding, Prod. Mfg. p. 70 
Ships, Geo. p. 6. Trans, p. 82. Dev. 
Na. p. 174, Am. Today p. 
176, Drazv. p. 461 
S. No. 26, 27, 48, 52, 100, 106, 
111, 119, 154, 217, 253, 
254, 257, 280, 295, 342, 
344, 415, 473, 525 
Shizuoka, Japan, Geo. p. 27 

S. No.' 530 
Shoes, Geo. pp. 5. 6. Prod. Mfg. p. 
60. Metals p. 428, Hvg. 
pp. 450, 451, Eat & Wear 
p. 561, Home Geo. pp. 567, 
571 
S. No. 11. 12, 41, 402, 403 
Factories, Prod. Mfg. p. 69 
Home Geo. p. 567 
S. No. 11, 12, 41 



INDEX 



625 



Wooden, Wood, p. 423, Eat & 
Wear p. 561 
S. No. 402, 403, 532 
Short Horn Cattle, An. Hus. p. 
292 
S. No. 356 
Shottery, Eng., Geo. p. 20, Cities 
p. 232 
S. No. 355 
Shrubs, PI. Asso. p. 326 

S. No. 188, 190, 209, 355, 362, 
379 
Siam, Geo. p. 26, Prod. & Mfg. 
p. 60 
S. No. 510 
Siberia, Geo. p. 28, Cos. Dsn. p. 
482, Read. p. 548 
S. No. 544 
Sicilv, Geo. p. 24, Peo. p. 37, For. 
Beg. p. 153, Hyg. p. 452, 
House Dsn. p. 469, Chil- 
dren, p. 509 
S. No. 455 
Siege of Corinth — Byron, Lit. 

Sub. p. 243 
Silk, Geo. pp. 5. 6, Prod. Mfg. pp. 
54, 68, Eng. Comp. p. 255, 
hid. Sup. Home p. 360, 
Tex. & CI. pp. 376, 378, 
Metals, p. 428, 7fy£. p. 
503, Eat & Wear p. 560, 
Home Geo. p. 566 
S. No. 22, 23, 24, 53, 54, 55, 
536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 
541 
Silk Worms, Prod. Mfg. p. 67, 
An. p. 338 
S. No. 536, 538, 539 
Silver, Geo. pp. 14, 17, 19, Prod. 
Mfg. pn . 58, 64, .4m. To- 
day p. 182, Mefak p. 426, 
Hyg. p. 459, Eat & Wear 
p. 561 
S. No. 84, 214, 287 
Singing — R. L. Stevenson, Read. 

p. 519 
Sioux Indian. Geo. p. 12, Peo. p. 
42, Trans, p. 75, Z}^f. iVa. 
p. 167, Cos. Dsn. p. 486 
S. No. 182 
Sisal, Geo. pp. 17, 29, Prod. Mfg. 
p. 53, Farm C. p. 282, 
Tex. & CI. p. 376, PI. & 
An. p. 520 
S. No. 289, 571 



Sketch Book, Lit. Sub. p. 244 
Sketching, Draw. p. 469 
Skis, Zones p. 118 

S. No. 344, 345 
Skyscrapers, Arct. p. 401 

S. No. 25, 26, 28, 30, 121, 139, 
230 
Slater, Samuel, Dev. Na. p. 165 
Slavery, Dev. Na. p. 165 
Slavonic Peoples, Peo. p. 38 

S. No. 465, 487, 488, 496, 544 
Slavs, Pol. Geo. p. 138 
Sleepy Hollow, Geo. p. 6, Gdn. 
Orch. & W. p. 285 
S. No. 36 
Smelting, Loc. Ind. pp. 440, 441 

S. No. 62, 156, 187, 334 
Smith, John, For. Beg. p. 154, F. 
Am. Na. p. 162, Read. p. 
532 
S. No. 98 
Smith, Samuel, Lit. Sub. p. 257, 

Read. p. 531 
Smith, Thomas, Read. p. 532 
Snow. Geo. p. 6, Ntl. F. p. 100 
S. No. 50, 276, 427, 428, 448 
542 
Snow Queen, The, Read. p. 528 
Social Side of Country Life, Farm 

H. & F. L. p. 316 
Sofia, Geo. p. 24, Cities p. 222 

S. No. 468 
Soils, pp. 269 to 275, Farm M. p. 
300, PI. Asso. p. 328, Ind. 
Dsn. p. 395, Metals p. 
431 
Soil Management, Soils p. 273 
Solar Energy, Earth N. pp. 142, 

143 
Solar Evaporation, Earth N. p. 

141 
Soldiers. Geo. pp. 22, 23, 30 

S. No. 293, 426, 476, 567, 585 

Some Things We Eat, Some 

Things We Wear, pp. 

551 to 561 

Some Things We Wear, pp. 559 

to 561 
Song of the Sea, The, Lit. Sub. p. 

249 
Sound, Ind. Dsn. p. 391 
Source, Ntl. F. pp. 99. 100 
S. No. 191, 276, 408, 448 



626 



INDEX 



South Africa, Union of, Geo. p. 29, 
Peo. p. 43, Pol. Geo. p. 
130 
S. No. 579 to 584 

South America, Geo. p. 18, Pol. 
Geo. p. 124, House Dsn. p. 

472, Children p. 507, Read. 
p. 541 

S. No. 304 to 341 
South Atlantic States, Geo. p. 8, 
Trav. & Lee. p. 575 
S. No. 85 to 111 
South Australia, Geo. p. 30, Pol. 
Geo. p. 129 
S. No. 588 
S. Carolina, Geo. p. 9, Zones p. 
115 
S. No. 104, 105 
South Central States, Geo. p. 9, 
Trav. & Lee. p. 575 
S. No. 112 to 127 
S. Dakota, Geo. p. 12, Zones p. 
116 
S. No. 178, 179 
Spacing, Arct. p. 401 
Spain, Geo. p. 23, Peo. p. 37, Pol. 
Geo. p. 132, For. Be«. p. 
156, House Dsn. p. 472, 
Children p. 509, Read. p. 
546 
S. No. 433 to 439 
Spanish America. Geo. pp. 17. 18. 
19, 20, Dev. No. p. 172 
S. No. 280 to 341 
Spanish War, Am. Today, p. 

177 
Spanning Spaces, Ind. Dsn. p. 388, 
. Irct. p. 405 
S. No. 91, 202, 270, 384, 451, 

473, 524, 568 
.Spans, Ind. Dsn. p. 388 

S. No. 3, 27, 41, 135, 150, 200, 
206, 242, 506 
Specific Gravity, Ind. Dsn. p. 

390 
Sphinx. The, Geo. p. 29, Arct. p. 
399, Con. Stone B. & T. 
P. 434 
S. No. 565 
Spinning, Tex. & CI. pp. 378, 379 
S. No. 14, 81, 409, 506, 563 
Spitzbersen, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 
82 
S. No. 415 
Spofford, Charles M., pp. xli, 483 



Sponges. Geo. p. 9. Dev. Na. p 
169, Hyg. p. 502, PL & 
An. p. '520 
S. No. Ill 
Spraying, Geo. p. 6, Prod. Mfg. p. 
66, Trans, p. 76, Zones p. 
116. Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 
288, Farm M. p. 308, Farm 
H. & F. L. p. 314, Metals 
p. 431, Loc. Ind. p. 445, 
Home Geo. p. 571 
S. No. 44 
Springs, Ntl. F. p. 99 
Springs, Hot, Ntl. F. p. 99 

S. No. 192, 193, 194 
Spruce, PL Asso. p. 324, Wood 
p. 421 
S. No. 246. 262, 412 
Spyri, Lit. Sub. p. 248 
St. John's, Geo. p. 16. Trans, pp. 
81, 82, Cities p. 227 
S. No. 278 
St. Lawrence, Geo. p. 16, Trans. 
p. 80, F. Am. Na. o 
159 
S. No. 263, 264, 265, 267 
St. Louis, Geo. pp. 11. 12, Zones 
p. 116, Am. Today p. 187 
S. No. 148, 174 
St. Peter's, Rome, Geo. p. 24, 
Cities p. 217, Arct. p. 411 
S. No. 450, 451 
Star Spangled Banner, The, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
State Department, Govt. p. 193 
State & Nat'l Capitals, Trav. & 

Lcc. p. 578 
States, Geo. no. 4 to 14, Pol. Geo. 

p. 123, Govt. p. 190 
Statue of Liberty, Geo. p. 5 

S. No. 25 
Steamers, Trans, pp. 79, 80, 82, 
Am. Today p. 186 
S. No. 26, 52, 119, 252, 253, 
267, 277, 280, 293, 314, 
415, 420, 511, 514, 556. 
559 
Steam Engine, Dev. Na. p. 176 

S. No. 177 
Steam Shovel, Ind. Dsn. p. 493 

S. No. 163, 250, 251 
Steel. Geo. pp. 7. 9. Prod. Mfg. pp. 
57, 69. Mkts. p. 89, Dei 
Na, p. 170, Am. Today 



INDEX 



627 



pp. 180, 181, Voc. Guid. 

p. 350, hid. Dsn. pp. 389, 

394, Metals pp. 426, 427, 

Con. Stone B. & T. p. 

434, Loc. hid. p. 440, 

Home Geo. p. 647 
S. No. 65 to 67, 116 
Stephens, H. Morse, pp. xxxiv, 

164 
Stereoscopic Photography, Photo. 

p. 493 
Stevenson, R. L., Lit. Sub. p. 247, 

Read. p. 528 
Stickeen, A Dog Story, Lit. Sub. 

p. 249 
Stirling. Scot., Geo. p. 21, Cities, 

p. 231, Lit. Sub. p. 246, 

Farm H. & F. L. p. 312 
S. No. 367, 368 
Stockholm, -Geo. p. 23, Pol. Geo. p. 

134, Cities p. 231 
S. No. 416 to 418 
Stockman, Voc. Guid. p. 348 
Stock-raising, Prod. Mfg. p. 67, 

Farm M. p. 301, An. p. 

331, Voc. Guid. p. 348, 

Loc. hid. p. 445. See 

Cattle, Horses, Hogs, 

Sheep 
S. No. 127, 186, 301, 317 
Stockvards, Geo. p. 10, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 50, Mkts. p. 90, An. 

Hus. p. 293, Food & 

Ckry. p. 364, Read. p. 538, 

Eat & Wear p. 556 
S. No. 140 
Stone, Geo. p. 5, Prod. Mfg. p. 59, 

hid. Dsn. pp. 389, 396, 397, 

Arct. pp. 415, 418, Con. 

Stone B. & T. p. 433, 

Loc. hid. p. 441, Home 

Geo. p. 565 
S. No. 3, 4, 5, 478, 568 
Stone, Concrete, Brick & Tile, pp. 

432 to 438 
Stone, Monuments, Con. Stone B. 

& T. pp. 435, 436 
S. No. 10, 36, 146, 283, 288, 

450 
Stone, Ruins. Con. Stone B. & T. 

p. 434 
S. No. 205, 284, 331, 452, 478, 

568 
Stones. Sources. Con. Stone B. & 

T. p. 434 



S. No. 3, 4, 51 

Store, Mkts. p. 91. Home Geo. p. 

648. See Markets 
Stories of American Life and Ad- 
venture — Eggleston, Lit. 

Sub. p. 243 
Stories of Ancient Greece, Read. 

p. 532 
Stories of Ancient Rome, Read. p. 

532 
Stories of Washington, Lit. Sub. 

p. 247 
Storing, Farm C. p. 278 
Story, Eng. Comp. p. 261 
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, Lit. Sub. 

p. 249 
Straits, Ntl. F. p. 104 

S. No. 439, 489 
Strasshure. Geo. p. 22, Cities pp. 

217, 233 
S. No. 389 
Stratford-on-Avon. Geo. p. 20. 

Cities p. 231, Lit. Sub. p. 

247 
S. No. 354, 356 
Street Cars. Trans, p. 85 

S. No. 27. 31, 139, 220, 230, 

273, 315, 380, 416, 473, 

587, 590 
Streets, Geo. p. 6, Cities p. 220, 

Arct. p. 416, Hyg. p. 451, 

House Dsn. p. 475, Home 

Geo p. 565 
S. No. 29, 90, 139, 167, 230, 

273, 305, 337, 351, 365, 

380, 399, 416, 422. 464, 

504, 513 
Strikes, Dev. Na. p. 168, 175 
Structural Iron & Steel, Am. To- 

day p. 184, Voc. Guid. p. 

350 
S. No. 126, 421 
Stucco, House Dsn. pp. 463, 469, 

472 
S. No. 336, 337, 341, 456 
Subjects for Photography, Photo. 

p. 494 
Subjects & Settings, Literary, pp. 

240 to 249 
Submarines, Geo. p. 15, Trans, p. 

82, Dev. Na. p. 173, Am. 

Today p. 178, Gov. p 195 
S. No. 242 
Sub-Tropics, Zones p. 113 



628 



INDEX 



Sue/ Canal, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. 

p 72, 7>a>w. p. 79. To/. 

Geo. p. 128, food. p. 549 
S. No. 559 
Suffrage, Com. Civ. p. 210 
Sugar Beet, Geo. pp. 13. 16. 23. . 

fW. M/g. pp. 47, 65, | 

/47H. Today p. 180, Fohm j 

C. p. 280, Food & Ckry. \ 

p. 369, Hyg. p. 452, Chil- j 

<//vn pp. 506, 512, Eat & j 

IIY<;r p. 554 
S. No. 35, 198, 270, 271, 

419 
Sugar Cane, Geo. pp. 15, 19. Prod. ! 

Mfg. pp. 47, 66, Farm C. 

p. 323, PI. Asso. p. 326, 

Food & Ckry. p. 369^ 

tfy*. p. 450 
S. No. 34, 35, 258, 332, 333 
Sugar Maple. See Maple Sugar 

S. No. 130 
Suggestions — Lecture, pp. 574, 

580 
Sun, Geo. pp. 22, 30, Earth N. p. 

141 
S. No. 414, 593 
Supreme Court, Geo. p. 8, Dev. 

Na. p. 165, Govt. p. 192, 

Com. Civ. p. 214 
S. No. 89 
Surf. Atlantic City, Geo. p. 7 

S. No. 60 
Surface, U. S., F. Am. Na. p. 

158 
Surface water, Ntl. F. p. 99 
Swamp, Geo. p. 11 

S. No. 161 
Sweden, Geo. p. 23, Peo. p. 36, 

Pol. Geo. p. 134, For. Beg. 

p. 156, House Dsn. p. 473, 

Read. p. 544 
S. No. 416 to 420 
Swine. See Hogs 
Swing. The.— R. L. Stevenson, 

Read. p. 529 
Swiss Alps, Zones p. 119 

S. No. 444 to 449 
Switzerland, Geo. p. 23, Peo. p. 

36, Pol. Geo. p. 133, House 

Dsn. p. 473, Children p. 

509, Read. p. 545 



S. No. 440 to 449 
Sydney, Geo. p. 30 

S. No. 585 
Syracuse, N. V., Geo. p. 6 

S. No. 41, 42 
Syria, Geo. p. 26, Fco. p. 38, Pol. 
Geo. p. 137, For. Beg. p. 
151, Read. p. 548, 7><w. 
<$* Lcc. p. 578 
S. No. 492 to 494 



Tabernacle, Arct. p. 411 

Table Mountain. Geo. p. 29 
S. No. 582 

Tables, Arct. p. 417, House Dsn. 
p. 475 
S. No. 33, 92, 417 

Tacoma, Mount. See Mount 
Rainier 
S. No. 87 90, 91 

Taj Mahal, The, India, Geo. p. 26. 
Cities p. 218, Arct. p. 399 
S. No. 502 

Talisman, The — Scott, Lit. Sub. 
p. 246 

Talus, Ntl. F. p. 99 

Tangier, Geo. p. 28. Mkts. p. 87, 
Cities p. 218, Cos. Dsn. p. 
482 
S. No. 555 

Tanning. Prod. Mfg. p. 55, Metals 
p. 428, Hyg. p. 449 
S. No. 272 

Tar, Dev. Na. p. 169, Am. Today 
p. 186, Wood p. 424 

Tariffs, Dev. Na. p. 169 

Tarsus, Geo. p. 25, For. Beg. p. 
152 
S. No. 491 

Tasmania, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 
129, Read. p. 549 
S. No. 590 

Taste of Maine Birch, A — Bur- 
roughs, Lit. Sub. p. 243 

Taylor, Jane, Read. p. 532 

Tea. Geo. p. 27, Prod. Mfg. p. 49, 
Zones, p. 116, Gdn., Orch. 
& W. p. 289, PI. Asso. 
]). 325, Food and Ckry. p. 
372, Hyg. p. 450, Chil- 
dren pp. 510, 512, PL & 
An. p. 520, Eat & Wear 
p. 555, Home Geo. p. 565 



INDEX 



629 



S. No. 530, 534 

Teaching, Voc. Guid. p. 354 
Teaching- Content p. xxv 
Technique, Draw. p. 459 
Tell, to His Native Mountains, 

Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Temperate Zone, Zones p. 115 
Temperature, effect on rocks, Ntl. 
P. p 08 
S. No. 51, 200, 201, 330 
Temples, Arct. p. 412 

S. No. 212, 475, 478, 501, 568 
Tenements, Hyg. p. 451, House 

Dsn. p. 475 
Tennessee, Geo. p. 9, Loc. Ind. p. 
441 
S. No. 114, 115 
Tennyson, Alfred, Lit. Sub. p. 247, 

Read. p. 521 
Tents, Tex. and CI. p. 380 

S. No. 168, 263, 265 

Terra Cotta, Ind. Dsn. p. 389, Con. 

Stone B. & T. p. 437. 

House Dsn. pp. 466, 472 

S. No. 338, 394, 402, 430, 434, 

492, 517, 526, 543 

Territories, Pol. Geo. p. 123, Govt. 

p. 198 
Teutonic Peoples, Peo. p. 34 

S. No. 347, 351, 355, 385, 388, 
390, 393, 395, 402, 409, 
411, 418 
Texas. Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. pp. 
50, 52, Dcv. Na. pp. 168, 
169, Com. Civ. pp. 205, 
207, 211, Cities p. 217, 
Ind. Sup. Home p. 360, 
Metals p. 430, Read. p. 
537 
S. No. 122 to 127 
Textiles. Geo. pp. 5, 6, 7, 26, 27, 
Voc. Guid. p. 350, Ind. 
Sup. Home p. 359, Tex. 
and CI. p. 375, Loc. Ind. 
p. 442, Home Geo. p. 567 
See Cotton, Linen, Silk, 
Wool. 
S. No. 14, 17, 22, 24 
Textiles & Clothing, pp. 374 to 

382 
Thames River, Geo. p. 20, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 71, Trans, p. 85 
S. No. 348 
Tlianatopsis — Bryant, Lit. Sub. 
p. 242 



"Thank you. prettv cow," Read. 

p. 532 
Three Goats Named Gruff, Read. 

p. 610 
Threshing, Geo. pp. 12. 14. 17. 26, 
29, Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Dev. 
Na. p. 176, Farm C. p. 278, 
Farm M. p. 310, Farm H. 
& F. L. pp. 315, 317, Food 
& Ckry. p. 367, Ind. Dsn. 
p. 396." Hyg. p. 451. Eat 
& Wear p. 553, Home 
Gen. p. 571 
S. No. 177, 218, 233, 497, 527, 
562 
Tiher. The, Gen. p. 24. Trans, p. 
85, Cities p. 224 
S. No. 450. 451 
Tides. Earth N. p. 145 
Tile. See also Terra Cotta. 

S. No. 161 
Tillage, Soils p. 273, Farm C. p. 
277 
S. No. 105, 178, 179, 561 
Tilled Crops, Farm M. p. 299 
Timher, Wood p. 423. See Lum- 
ber. 
S. No. 70. 74, 75. 77, 78, 122, 
155, 581 
Tires. Geo. p. 10. Prod. Mfg. p. 
62, Trans, p. 86, Voc. 
Guid. p. 350 
Tobacco, Geo. pp. 9. 17. Prod. 
Mfg. pp. 61. 65. Zones, n. 
Ill, F. Am. Na. p. 162. 
Am. Today P- 185, Farm 
C. p. 281, Farm M. p. 307, 
PI. Asso. p. 326, Hyg. p. 
450 
S. No. 112, 297 
Tokvo. Geo. p. 27. Pol. Geo. p. 
139, Cities pp. 217, 233, 
Arct. p. 401, House Dsn. 
p. 470 
S. No. 526 
Tools, Farm M. p. 308, Ind. Dsn. 
p. 392, Metals p. 427, Loc. 
Ind. p. 453 
S. No. 75, 78, 105, 143, 388, 
488, 498, 529, 549, 550, 
561, 562 
Torpedo Boats, Geo. p. 15, Trans. 
p 82, Govt. p. 195 
S. No. 242 



630 



INDEX 



Tortilla, Geo. p. 17, Pco. p. 42, 
Prod. Mfg. p. 68, Com. 
Civ. p. 203, Hyg. p. 452, 
Bat & Wear p. 554 
S. No. 292 

Tower, G^o. pp. 20, 21, 7>id. Djh. 
p. 394, Arct. p. 413 
S. No. 349, 376, 406. 421, 425, 
442 

Towns, Govt. p. 189 

Townships, Govt. p. 189 

Tractors, Geo. pp. 11, 12, 19, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 46, Dev. Na. p. 
176, Farm M. p. 309, Lor. 
Ind. p. 453, 7><nc\ p. 456, 
/'/(,>/<<. p. 496 
S. No. 161, 178, 179, 180, 233, 
332 

Tracks, Trans, p. 83 
S. No. 43, 101, 129 

Trade Routes, Am. Today p. 186 

Trade Wind, Zones p. Ill 

Tragedies of the Nests — Bur- 
roughs, Lit. Sub. p. 243 

Trains, Trans, p. 84 

S. No. 43, 79, 101, 129 

Transportation pp. 73 to 86 

Transportation — Methods, Dev. 
Xa. pp. 166, 169, Am. To- 
day pp. 181, 185, Com. 
Civ. p. 207, Cities p. 219, 
Eng. Comp. p. 254, Farm 
M. p. 309, Ind. Suf>. Home 
p. 361, Metals p. 429, Loc. 
Ind. p. 447, Home Geo. 
pp. 565, 568, 572 

Trappings, Tex. & CI. p. 380 
S. No. 494, 505, 565 

Travel, R. L. Stevenson, Read. p. 
529 

Travelogue & Lecture Sugges- 
tions pp. 574 to 580 

Treasury, Govt. p. 194 
S. No. 90 

Tree, The — Bjornson, Lit. Sub. 
p. 249 

Trees, F. Am. Xa. p. 159, PI. 
Asso. pp. 320 to 328, 
Draw. p. 460. See Gar- 
den, Orchard and Wood 
Lot. See Wood. See 
Horticulture 

Trinity Church, N. Y., Com. Civ. 
p. 201, Arct. pp. 407, 411 
S. No. 29 



Tropics, Zones p. 110 
Trowbridge, J. T., Lit. Sub. p. 247 
Trusses, Ind. Dsn. p. 395, Arct. 

pp. 406, 415 
S. No. 150, 202, 270, 271, 330 
Tunis, Geo. p. 28, Pol. Geo. p. 132, 

Cities p. 223, Arct. pp. 

399, 403, Read. p. 548 
S. No. 557 
Turban, Cos. Dsn. pp. 482, 483 
S. No. 494, 503, 505, 506, 555, 

565, 566 
Turkey, Geo. p. 25, Pol. Geo. p. 

137 
S. No. 472 to 474, 489 to 498 
Turpentine, Geo. p. 9, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 60, Dev. Xa. p. 169, 

. 1m. Today p. 185, Gdn. 

Orch. & W. p. 289. Wood 

p. 424, Read. p. 537 
S. No. 107 
Twinkle. Twinkle, Little Star — 

Jane Taylor. Read. p. 532 
Two Years Before the Mast, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
Typee, The, Lit. Sub. p. 249 

U 

Uganda, Geo. p. 29, Prod. Mfg. p. 
53, Zones p. 110, Read. p. 
549 
S. No. 570, 571 

Ukraine, Geo. p. 25, Pco. p. 38, 
Pol. Geo. p. 138 
S. No. 486, 487, 488 

Umbrellas, Tex & CI. p. 380 

S. No. 60, 387, 452, 501, 510, 
548 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, Lit. Sub. p. 
249 

Underground Water, Ntl. F. p. 99 

Uniforms, Cos. Dsn. p. 480 

S. No. 146, 266, 293, 366, 426, 
476 

Union of South Africa, Pol. Geo. 
p. 130 
S. No. 579 to 584 

United States, Geo. p. 4, Peo. pp 
33, 42, 43, Prod. Mfg. p 
46, Trans, p. 74, Pol. Geo 
p. 122. F. Am. Na. p. 158 
Dev. Na. p. 164, Govt, p 
189, Com. Civ. p. 201 
( 'ities p. 216, Farm C 
p. 277, Gdn, Orch. & IV 



INDEX 



631 



p. 284, An. Hits. p. 291 
Farm M. p. 297, PL Asso 
p. 320, Voc. Guid. p 
348, Ind. Sup. Home p 
358, Food & Ckry. p. 363 
Arct. p. 409, Wood p. 420 
Metals p. 425, i7o»jf 
Dsn. p. 474 
S. No. 1 to 242 

Upon the Mountain's Distant 
Head, Lit. Sub. p. 243 

Uranus, Geo. p. 30, Earth N. p. 
146 
S. No. 598 

Uruguay, Geo. p. 18, House Dsn. 
p. 472 
S. No. 312, 313 

Utah, Geo. p. 13, Dev. Na. p. 167 
S. No. 212, 213 

Utensils — Household, House 
Adm. p. 384 



Vaal River, Geo. p. 29, Zones p. 
112 
S. No. 580 
Vaca Cabeza de, F. Am. Na. p. 

162 
Valencia, Spain, Geo. p. 23, Zones 

p. 114 
Vale of Kashmir. See Kashmir 
Valley, Geo. pp. 6, 14. Ntl. F. p. 
102 
S. No. 38, 61, 114, 276, 515 
Valley Glaciers, Ntl. F. p. 100 

S. No. 274, 275, 276, 279, 408, 
427, 428, 446, 448 
Valparaiso, Chile, Geo. p. 19, 
Trans, p. 82. Zones p. 114, 
Cities p. 227 
S. No. 326, 327 
Vancouver, B. C. Geo. p. 16, 
Trans, pp. 83, 84, Cities 
p. 234 
S. No. 277 
Van Rensselaer. Martha, pp. 

xxxix, 356 
Vaterland, Geo. p. 6, Dev. Na. p. 
174 
S. No. 52 



Vegetable Products, Prod. Mfg. 

p. 52 
Vegetables, Farm C. p. 283, Food 
& Ckrv. p. 370, Children 
pp. 505, 512, Eat & Wear 
pp. 553, 557 
S. No. 149, 166, 375 
Venezuela, Geo. p. 19, Peo. p. 43, 
Pol. Geo. p. 125, Govt. p. 
193, Children p. 508, Read. 
p. 542 
S. No. 338 to 341 
Venice, Geo. p. 24, For. Beg. p. 
153, Cities p. 221 
S. No. 457 
Vera Cruz, Geo. p. 17, F. Am. Na. 
p. 163, Dev. Na. pp. 167, 
173, Cities p. 227, Read. p. 
540 
S. No. 280 
Vermont, Geo. p. 5, Con. Stone B. 
& T. p. 434, Loc. Ind. p. 
441 
S. No. 4, 5 
Verrazano, da Giovanni, For. Beg. 

p. 153 
Vesuvius, Geo. p. 24, Soils p. 271 

S. No. 453 
Viaducts, Cities p. 223. See 

Bridge 
Victoria, Geo. p. 30, Pol. Geo. p. 
129 
S. No. 586, 587 
Victoria Falls, Geo. p. 29, Com 
Civ. p. 201, Read. p. 649 
S. No. 576 
Vienna, GVo. p. 24, Pol. Geo. 
p. 137. Cities pp. 218, 222 
S. No. 462 
Village Homes, Arct. p. 411 

S. No. 10, 37, 354, 362, 368, 
401, 402, 447. 517, 535 
Villages, Govt. p. 189 
Vines. PL Asso. p. 371 

S. No. 37, 47, 137, 236, 319, 
354, 359, 362, 376, 390 
Vineyards. Geo. pp. 15. 19, 22. 
Prod. Mfg. p. 48. Mkts. p. 
92. Gdn. Orch. & IV. p. 
288, Loc. Ind. p. 445, Chil- 
dren p. 512 
S. No. 236, 319, 390 
Virginia, Geo. p. 8, F. Am. Na. p. 
162 



632 



INDEX 



S. No. 96 to 100 

Vision of Sir Launfal, Lit. Sub. 

p. 245 
Vivian, Alfred, p. xxxvi. Soils 

p. 269 
Vocational Guidance, pp. 347 to 

355 
Vocations, Studies of, Eng. Lamp. 

p. 256 
Volcanic Mountains, Ntl. P. P- 

S No. 221, 288, 291, 453, 525, 
545, 548 
Volcanic Soil, Soils p. 271 

S. No. 192, 194, 222, 453, 545 

Volcanoes, Geo. pp. 17. 18. 24, 27. 
Soils p. 271, PI. Asso. p. 
328 
S No. 291, 293, 300, 453, 525, 
545 

w 

Wagons, Geo. p. 7. Trans, p. 75 
S No. 7, 47, 71, 138, 147, 
167, 177, 195, 273, 406 
Wales, Geo. p. 21 

S. No. 363 
Wall St.. Geo. p. 6, Dev. A«. P 
164, Govt. p. 194, Com 
Civ. p 201, Cities p. 221 
S. No. 29 
Wallace. Gzn. Lew. Lit. Sub. p. 

248 
Wallace, Sir William, Geo. p. 21, 

S. No. 368 
Ward, Robert De C, pp. xxxn, 

109 
War Department, Govt. p. 194 
War of 1812, Am. Today p. 177 

S. No. 71 
Warner, Charles Dudley, Lit. Sub. 

p. 247 
Wars, Our, Am. Today p. 177 
Warsaw. Geo. p. 25. Mkts. p. 88, 
Cities p. 218 
S. No. 485 
Warships. Geo. pp. 8. 15, 17, .4m. 
Tnr/cry p. 186, Go^/. P- 
195. See Battleships, Sub- 
marines. Torpedo Boats 
S. No. 100, 242, 254, 296 
Washing, Geo. p. 23, House Aim 
p. 384, Hyg. p. 452 
S. No. 431 



Washington, D. C, Geo. p. 8, Dev. 
Na. p. 164, Govt. p. 191, 
Cow. Civ. p. 200, Cities 
pp. 217, 221, 229, Gd». 
Or/i. 6- W. p. 286, Foe. 
Guid. p. 354, ^rcf. p. 400, 
//v-. p. 451, i?cad. p. 535 
S. No. 87 to 95 
Washington, George, Geo. pp. 6, 
8, /•'. Am. Na. p. 163, Dev. 
Na. p. 164, /?<?ad. p. 530 
S. No. 37, 39, 61, 80, 90, 96 
Washington (State), Geo. p. 14 
Prod. Mfg. p. 63, Trans. 
p. 82. Mkts. p. 94, Wood 
p. 422, /^w/. p. 539 
S. No. 215 to 220 
Waste, Com. Civ. p. 208 
Watch on the Rhine, The, Lit 

Sub. p. 249 
Water-Carriers, Geo. p. 26 

S. No. 502 
Water Fronts. Cities p. 225 
Water, Ground, Ntl. P. p. 99 
Water Power, Am. Today p. 182 
S. No. 49, 50, 170, 197, 210, 
228, 569 
Water. Relation of Plants, PI. 

Asso. p. 328 
Water Supply, House Adm. p. 385 
Water. Surface. Ntl. F. p. 99 
Water. Underground, Ntl. F. p. 9° 
Waterways, Cities p. 225. See 

Transportation 
Watts, R. L. p. xxxvii, Gdn., Orch. 

& IP. p. 284 
Weatherbv, F. E., Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Weathering. Ntl. P. pp. 98 to 100 

Soils p. 269 
Weathering — Fantastic Features. 
Ntl. P. p. 99 
S. No. 197, 200, 201, 208 
Weaving, Geo. pp. 6, 26, 27, Prod. 
Mfg. p. 54. Dev. Na. p 
165, Ind. Suf. Home p. 
360, Tex. & CI. p. 379, 
Ind. Dsn. p. 394, Eat & 
Wear p. 559 
S. No. 53, 54, 55, 269, 541 
Webster, Daniel, Dev. Na. p. 164 
Webster, Hutton, pp, xxxiii, 151 
i Wedges, Ind. Dsn. p. 392 
1 Western Europe, For. Beg. p. 154 



INDEX 



633 



West Indies, Geo. p. 17, Peo. p. 44, 
Zones, p. 111. See Cuba, 
Porto Rico. Jamaica, 
Guadeloupe, Dominica 
S. No. 295 to 303 
West Point. Geo. p. 6. F. Am. Na. 
p. 163, Govt. p. 195 
S. No. 39 
West Virginia, Geo. p. 8 

S. No. 101 
Westminster Abbey. Geo. p. 20, 
For. Beg. p. 158 
S. No. 350 
Whale, Geo. p. 22. Prorf. /If/r/. p. 
52, /in. p. 339, PI. & An. 
p. 526 
S. No. 415 
Wharves. See Docks. 
Wheat, Geo. pp. 12. 13. 14. 20, 26. 
Prod. Mfg. p. 46, Dev. 
Na. p. 174, Am. Today p. 
178, Farm C. p. 278, Food 
& Ckry. p. 367, Hyg. p. 
450, Read. p. 538, EaJ S- 
Wear p. 553 
S. No. 48, 177, 218, 233, 357, 
497, 498 
Wheel and Axle, Ind. Dsn. p. 
392 
S. No. 64, 66, 82, 180 
" When the Frost Is on the Pun'k- 

in," Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Where Go the Boats. R. L. Ste- 
venson, Read. p. 529 
Whitbeck, R. H., pp. xliv, 641 
White, Edna N., pp. xxxix, 362 
White House. Geo. p. 8. Dev. Na. 
p. 164, Govt. p. 192, Cities 
p. 231, Gdn. Orch. & W. 
p. 286, Farm hi. & F. L. 
p. 312, Con. Stone B. & 
T. p. 434, House Dsn. p. 
476 
S. No. 91 
White Race, Peo. p. 32 
Whitman, Walt, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Whittier. John Greenleaf, Lit. 

Sub. p. 248 
Whittington, Dick, Read. p. 532 
Who Stole the Rird's Nest? — L. 

M. Child, Read. p. 531 
Willow, PI. Asso. p. 325 
Wilson, Wood row. Geo. p. 8. 
Govt. p. 193 
S. No. 88 
Wind, Soils p. 271 



Windmills, Farm H. & F. L. p. 

312, Arct. p. 413 
S. No. 108, 400 
Windows, Arct. p. 404, House 

Dsn. pp. 463, 467, 468, 

469, 470, 472, 473, 476 
Windows — Casement, House Dsn. 

pp. 464, 467, 473 
S. No. 354, 442 
Dormer, House Dsn. pp. 465. 

468, 473 
S. No. 389, 442, 461 
Wind, Trade. Zones p. Ill 
Windward Consts. Zones p. 115 

S. No. 215, 224, 361, 407 
Winnipeg, Geo. p. 16, Com. Civ. 

p. 208, Cities p. 221, Read. 

P. 540 
S. No. 273 
Winship, A. E., p. xxxviii, Farm 

H. & F. L. p. 311 
Wisconsin, Geo. p. 11 
S. No. 159 to 161 
Wood, Geo. pp. 4, 11, 14, 22, Ind. 

Sup. Home p. 358, Food 

& Ckrv. p. 363, Ind. Dsn. 

pp. 564, 567, 570. See 

Dsn. p. 475, Home Geo. 

pp. 566, 567, 570. See 

Lumbering, Trees, Forests 
Wood carving, Wood p. 423 

S. No. 33, 89, 92, 352, 417, 

443. 521 
Woodcock, Geo. p. 7, An. p. 340, 

Hyg. p. 448, Phto. p. 495, 

PI. & An. p. 526 
S. No. 72 
Wood Lot. Gdn. Orch. & W. p. 

289 
Woodman, Spare That Tree, Lit. 

Sub. p. 249 
Wood Pulp^ Geo. p. 22. Prod. Mfg. 

p. 70. See Paper 
S. No. 412 
Wood — Sources and Uses, pp. 

420 to 424 
Wool. Geo. pp. 5. 7, 10. 12. 13, 22. 

25, 30, Prod. Mfg. pp. 54, 

68, Am. Today p. 185, Eng. 

Comp. p. 255, Ind. Sup. 

Home p. 360, Tex. & CI. 

pp. 376, 379, Metals p. 428, 

Children p. 513, Eat & 

Wear p. 560, Home Geo. 

pp. 566, 572 



634 



INDEX 



S. No. 17, 18, 81, 145, 173, 
190, 409, 480, 506, 589 
Wordsworth, William, Geo. p. 21, 
Lit. Sub. p. 248, Gdn. 
Orch. & IV. p. 287 
S. No. 362 
Work, Cary, Lit. Sub. p. 249 
Work, Health Habits, Hyg. p. 449 
World, W. B. Rands, Read. p. 529 
World War, Dev. No. p. 174, Am. 
Today p. 177 
S. No. 146, 242, 386, 394, 426 
Wyoming, Geo. p. 13 
S. No. 191 to 197 



Yachts, Trans, p. 78 
Yangtse River, Geo. p. 27 

S. No. 515, 517 
Yellow Race, Pco. p. 40 

S. No. 343, 510, 519 523 
530, 523, 538, 543 
Yellowstone Nat'l Park, Geo. p. 
13. Ntl. F. p. 102, Zones p. 
119, Govt. p. 196, Read. p. 
540 
S. No. 191 to 197 



York, Eng., Geo. p. 21, Com. Civ. 

p. 201, Cities p. 217, Arct. 

p. 399 
S. No. 360 
Yosemite Vallev, Geo. p. 14, Ntl. 

F. p. 102, Govt. p. 196, 

Read. p. 539 
S. No. 228, 229 
Yuan Shih-kai, Pol. Geo. p. 138 
Yukon River, Geo. o- 15 



Zakopane, Geo. p. 24 

S. No. 465 
Zambezi River, Geo. p. 29, Zones 
p. 112 
S. No. 575, 576 
Zeppelin, Geo. p. 22, Trans, p. 86, 
Pol. Geo. p. 136, Dev. Na. 
p. 174 
S. No. 394 
Zinc, Geo. p. 12, Prod. Mfg. p. 64, 
Am. Today p. 182, Metals 
p. 426 
S. No. 176 
Zonation of Forests, PI. Assn. p. 

322 
Zones, pp. 109 to 1-C 



I 



iS !i 



Hi 



in 



9 II 



' ! M! 






mi i imtt! 

1:1 I i I i I ill 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



009 067 438 9 







ill 




' H' SI nil! ; i 




